Unit+01+Review+(16-18)

= Questions for Chapters 16, 17, and 18 = = AP World History [B] = __ Directions __ : At the very least you need to explain the Who, What, When, Where, and Why of these terms, so that everyone can clearly understand their significance. Wherever possible, please provide an image so as to make remembering all of the happy stuff a little bit easier.

Queen of England from 1509 until 1533 as the first wife of King Henry VIII; she was previously Princess of Wales as the wife of Prince Arthur. The daughter of Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon, Catherine was three years old when she was betrothed to Prince Arthur, heir apparent to the English throne. They married in 1501, but Arthur died five months later. In 1507, she held the position of ambassador for the Spanish Court in England, becoming the first female ambassador in European history. Catherine subsequently married Arthur's younger brother, the recently succeeded Henry VIII, in 1509. For six months in 1513, she served as regent of England while Henry VIII was in France. During that time the English won the Battle of Flodden, an event in which Catherine played an important part. By 1525, Henry VIII was infatuated with his mistress Anne Boleyn and dissatisfied that his marriage to Catherine had produced no surviving sons, leaving their daughter, the future Mary I of England, as heiress presumptive at a time when there was no established precedent for a woman on the throne. He sought to have their marriage annulled, setting in motion a chain of events that led to England's break with the Roman Catholic Church. When Pope Clement VII refused to annul the marriage, Henry defied him by assuming supremacy over religious matters. In 1533 their marriage was declared invalid and Henry married Anne on the judgment of clergy in England, without reference to the Pope. Catherine refused to accept Henry as Supreme Head of the Church of England and considered herself the King's rightful wife and queen, attracting much popular sympathy. Despite this, she was acknowledged only as Dowager Princess of Wales by Henry. After being banished from court, she lived out the remainder of her life at Kimbolton Castle, and died there on 7 January 1536. Catherine's English subjects held her in high esteem, thus her death set off tremendous mourning among the English people. Catherine rode north in full armour to address the troops, despite being heavily pregnant at the time. (She gave birth to a stillborn son c. October.) Her fine speech was reported to the historian Peter Martyr d'Anghiera in Valladolid within a fortnight. Although an Italian newsletter said she was 100 miles north of London when news of the victory at Battle of Flodden Field reached her, she was near Buckingham. From Woburn Abbey she sent a letter to Henry along with a piece of the bloodied coat of King James IV of Scotland, who died in the battle, for Henry to use as a banner at the siege of Tournai.
 * Ali- ** Henry VIII- ( June 1491 – 28 January 1547 ) Henry VIII was king of England until his death in April 1509. In England, Henry VIII began to set up the Anglican church, initially to challenge papa attempts to enforce his first marriage, which had failed to produce a male heir. Henry ultimately had six wives in sequence, executing two of them, a particular graphic example of the treatment of women in power politics. Henry was also attracted to some of the new doctrines, and his more durable successor, his daughter Elizabeth I, was protestant outright. Besides his six marriages, Henry VIII is known for his role in the separation of the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church. Henry's struggles with Rome led to the separation of the Church of England from papal authority, the Dissolution of the Monasteries, and his own establishment as the Supreme Head of the Church of England. Yet he remained a believer in core Catholic theological teachings, even after his excommunication from the Roman Catholic Church. Henry oversaw the legal union of England and Wale with the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542.
 * Arellano- **Henry VII- was King of England and Lord of Ireland from his seizing the crown on 22 August 1485 until his death on 21 April 1509, as the first monarch of the House of Tudor. Henry won the throne when his forces defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field. He was the last king of England to win his throne on the field of battle. Henry cemented his claim by marrying Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV and niece of Richard III. Henry was successful in restoring the power and stability of the English monarchy after the political upheavals of the civil wars known as the Wars of the Roses. He founded the Tudor dynasty and, after a reign of nearly 24 years, was peacefully succeeded by his son, Henry VIII.
 * Baylee- **Ferdiand and Isabella
 * Melana- **Catherine of Aragon --

__Influence__ -- On 11 June 1513, Henry appointed Catherine Regent or Governor of England while he went to France on a military campaign. When Louis d'Orléans, Duke of Longueville, was captured at Thérouanne, Henry sent him to stay in Catherine's household. She wrote to Wolsey that she and her council would prefer the Duke to stay in the Tower of London as the Scots were "so busy as they now be" and she added her prayers for "God to sende us as good lukke against the Scotts, as the King hath ther." The war with Scotland occupied her subjects, and she was "horrible busy with making standards, banners, and badges" at Richmond Palace. The Scots invaded and on 3 September she ordered Thomas Lovell to raise an army in the midland counties. Catherine's religious dedication increased as she aged, as did her interest in academics. She continued to broaden her knowledge and provide training for her daughter. Education among women became fashionable, partly because of Catherine's influence. She also donated large sums of money to several colleges. Henry, however, still considered a male heir essential. The Tudor dynasty was new, and its legitimacy might still be tested. A long civil war (1135–54) had been fought the last time a woman, (Empress Matilda), had inherited the throne. The disasters of civil war were still fresh in living memory from the Wars of the Roses. In 1520, Catherine's nephew Holy Roman Emperor Charles V paid a state visit to England, and she urged Henry to enter an alliance with Charles rather than with France. Immediately after his departure, she accompanied Henry to France on the celebrated visit to Francis I, the so-called Field of the Cloth of Gold. Within two years, war was declared against France and the Emperor was once again welcome in England, where plans were afoot to betroth him to Catherine's daughter Mary.

__Death/Banishment __-- Upon returning to Dover from a meeting with King Francis I of France in Calais, Henry married Anne Boleyn in a secret ceremony. Some sources speculate that Anne was already pregnant at the time (and Henry didn't want to risk a son being born illegitimate), but others testify that Anne (who had seen her sister Mary Boleyn taken up as the king's mistress and summarily cast aside) refused to sleep with Henry until they were married. Henry defended the legality of their union by pointing out that Catherine had previously been married. If she and Arthur had consummated their marriage, Henry by canon law had the right to remarry. On 23 May 1533, Cranmer, sitting in judgement at a special court convened at Dunstable Priory to rule on the validity of Henry's marriage to Catherine, declared the marriage illegal, even though Catherine testified she and Arthur had never had physical relations. Cranmer ruled Henry and Anne's marriage valid five days later, on 28 May 1533. Until the end of her life, Catherine would refer to herself as Henry's only lawful wedded wife and England's only rightful queen, and her servants continued to address her by that title. However, Henry refused her the right to any title but "Dowager Princess of Wales" in recognition of her position as his brother's widow. Catherine went to live at The More castle in the winter of 1531/32. In 1535 she was transferred to Kimbolton Castle. There, she confined herself to one room (which she left only to attend Mass), dressed only in the hair shirt of the Order of St. Francis, and fasted continuously. While she was permitted to receive occasional visitors, she was forbidden to see her daughter Mary. They were also forbidden to communicate in writing, but sympathizers discreetly ferried letters between the two. Henry offered both mother and daughter better quarters and permission to see each other if they would acknowledge Anne Boleyn as his new Queen. Both refused. In late December 1535, sensing her death was near, Catherine made her will, and wrote to her nephew, Emperor Charles V, asking him to protect her daughter.


 * Barner- **William of Orange: ** From 1672, William of Orange, more widely known as William III, governed as the stadtholder over Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelderland, and Overijssel of the Dutch Republic. Also, from 1689, he also ruled as William III over England and Ireland (coincidentally, he was known as the same title for both kingdoms). Although, he was known as William II to Scotland. To achieve this position, he started the "Glorious Revolution" in 1688, in which he invaded England, an act which ultimately dethroned King James IV & VII and won the crowns of England, Ireland, and Scotland. In the British Isles, he also ruled along side his wife, Mary II of England, until her death in 1694. A Protestant himself, William III participated in many wars against the Catholic king, Louis XIV of France, along with some of the other Protestant and Catholic powers in that part of Europe. Because of this battling, many protestants declared William the champion of their religion. All of these victories allowed William to take the British crowns away from King James, when many thought James' rule would be the leading cause of the revival of Catholicism. In addition, his reign marked the beginning of the transition from the personal rule of the Stuarts to the more Parliament-centered rule of the House of Hanover. In 1702, William of Orange died, due to pneumonia, caused by a broken collar bone, due to a fall off of his horse. His death resulted in the end of the Dutch House of Orange, and the five provinces William controlled during his reign, all suspended the office after his death. **
 * Bassett- **Frederick the Great- He was the king of Prussia from 1740-1786 in the Hohenzollern dynasty. He is known for his great military brilliance in campaigning and organization of the Prussian army. Frederick was more interested in music and philosophy as a child. It wasn't until after the execution of his best friend di he focus on military. He attacked Austria and took over Silesia during the Silesian wars, which gave him military recognition for himself and Prussia. Before his death in 1786, he he physically connected most of his realm by conquering Polish territories in the first partition of Poland. Frederick was a key proponent of the enlightened absolutism. He modernized the Prussian bureaucracy and civil service and promoted religious tolerance throughout his realm. Since he had no son he was succeeded by his nephew, Frederick William II of Prussia, son of his brother, Prince Augustus William of Prussia.

Henry the fourth when he became king of France. He ruled France from 1589 to 1610, and he became king by succeeding Henry the third of France which is why he had to change his name to Henry the fourth. He was the first of the House of Bourbon to rule France and he married Margaret of France. He was an unpopular king during his reign because the Catholics didn't like him and because he left the Calvinist church when he ascended to the throne the Protestants thought he was a traitor. The Catholic church fought his legitimacy for four years, and after surviving at least 12 assassination attempts he was killed by Francois Ravaillac, a fanatical Catholic. Achievements: He made the Edict of Nantes which guaranteed religious liberties to Protestants, and ended the Wars of Religion. With the help of the Duke of Sully he attempted to regularize state finance, he promoted agriculture, drained swamps, encouraged education, and protected forests. He had the Pont Neuf constructed to connect the Right and Left banks of the city of Paris which helped revitalize the city. He also financed several expeditions to North America which led to France claiming Canada.
 * Bates- **Henry of Navarre - Also known as Henry the third while he was king of Navarre, and then

*Important:French monarch of the late 17th century who personified __absolute monarchy__ said, "I am the state."(Concept of government which featured monarchs who passed laws without parliments, appointed professionalized armies and bureaucracies,established state churches, and imposed state economic policies) Elizabeth I was queen regnant of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. The daughter of Henry VIII, she was born into the royal succession, but her mother, Anne Boleyn, was executed two and a half years after her birth, with Anne's marriage to Henry VIII being annulled, and Elizabeth hence declared illegitimate. On his death in 1553, her half-brother, Edward VI, bequeathed the crown to Lady Jane Grey, cutting his two half-sisters, Elizabeth and Mary, out of the succession in spite of statute law to the contrary. His will was set aside, Mary became queen, and Lady Jane Grey was executed. In 1558, Elizabeth succeeded her half-sister. It was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir so as to continue the Tudor line. She never did, however, despite numerous courtships. Elizabeth's reign is known as the Elizabethan era, famous above all for the flourishing of English drama, led by playwrights such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe, and for the seafaring prowess of English adventurers such as Francis Drake. She reigned for 44 years. **Philip II** (21 May 1527 – 13 September 1598) was [|King of Spain][|[1]] from 1556 and of [|Portugal] from 1581. From 1554 he was King of [|Naples] and [|Sicily] as well as [|Duke of Milan]. During his marriage to [|Queen Mary I] (1554–58), he was also [|King of England] and [|Ireland]. From 1555, he was lord of the [|Seventeen Provinces] of the [|Netherlands]. Known in Spanish as "Philip the Prudent," his [|empire] included territories on every continent then known to Europeans, including his namesake [|Philippine Islands]. During his reign, Spain reached the height of its influence and power. The expression "The empire on which the sun never sets" was coined during Philip's time to reflect the extent of his possessions. During Philip's reign there were separate [|state bankruptcies] in 1557, 1560, 1575, and 1596. This was partly the cause for the [|declaration of independence] which created the [|Dutch Republic] in 1581. A devout Catholic, Philip is also known for organizing a huge naval expedition against Protestant England in 1588, known usually as the [|Spanish Armada], which was unsuccessful, partly due to storms and grave logistical problems. Philip was described by the Venetian ambassador Paolo Fagolo in 1563 as "slight of stature and round-faced, with pale blue eyes, somewhat prominent lip, and pink skin, but his overall appearance is very attractive." The Ambassador went on to say "He dresses very tastefully, and everything that he does is courteous and gracious."
 * Boboy- **Louis XIV- known as Louis the Great (Louis le Grand) or the Sun King (le Roi-Soleil), was a monarch of the House of Bourbon who ruled as King of France and Navarre from 1643-1715. Louis began his personal rule of France in 1661 after the death of his chief minister, the Italian Cardinal Mazarin. An adherent of the theory of the divine right of kings, which advocates the divine origin of monarchical rule, Louis continued his predecessors' work of creating a centralized state governed from the capital. He sought to eliminate the remnants of feudalism persisting in parts of France and, by compelling many members of the nobility to inhabit his lavish Palace of Versailles, succeeded in pacifying the aristocracy, many members of which had participated in the Fronde rebellion during Louis's minority. By these means he became one of the most powerful French monarchs and consolidated a system of absolute monarchical rule in France that endured until the French Revolution.During Louis's reign, France was the leading European power and it fought three major wars: the Franco-Dutch War, the War of the League of Augsburg, and the War of the Spanish Succession.Also reduced internal tariffs and created new state-run manufacturing(Mercantilism);he also built the Palace of Versailles.
 * Boyer- **Elizabeth
 * Caliman- **Phillip II-

== Humaism in basically an outlook or system of thought attaching prime importance to human rather than divine or supernatural matters. Humanist beliefs stress the potential value and goodness of human beings, emphasize common human needs, and seek solely rational ways of solving human problems. == Gutenberg was the first European to use movable type printing, in around 1439. Among his many contributions to printing are: the invention of a process for mass-producing movable type; the use of oil-based ink; and the use of a wooden printing press similar to the agricultural screw presses of the period. His truly epochal invention was the combination of these elements into a practical system which allowed the mass production of printed books and was economically viable for printers and readers alike. Gutenberg's method for making type is traditionally considered to have included a type metal alloy and a hand mold for casting type. In Renaissance Europe, the arrival of mechanical movable type printing introduced the era of mass communication which permanently altered the structure of society. The relatively unrestricted circulation of information — including revolutionary ideas — transcended borders, captured the masses in the Reformation and threatened the power of political and religious authorities; the sharp increase in literacy broke the monopoly of the literate elite on education and learning and bolstered the emerging middle class. Across Europe, the increasing cultural self-awareness of its people led to the rise of proto-nationalism, accelerated by the flowering of the European vernacular languages to the detriment of Latin's status as lingua franca. In the 19th century, the replacement of the hand-operated Gutenberg-style press by steam-powered rotary presses allowed printing on an industrial scale, while Western-style printing was adopted all over the world, becoming practically the sole medium for modern bulk printing.[3] The use of movable type was a marked improvement on the handwritten manuscript, which was the existing method of book production in Europe, and upon woodblock printing, and revolutionized European book-making. Gutenberg's printing technology spread rapidly throughout Europe and later the world. His major work, the Gutenberg Bible (also known as the 42-line Bible), has been acclaimed for its high aesthetic and technical quality.
 * Elbushra- **humanism-
 * Eubank- ** Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg (/joʊˌhɑːnɨsˈɡuːtənbɜrɡ/ yoh-HAH-nəs GOO-tən-burɡ; c. 1395 – February 3, 1468) was a German blacksmith, goldsmith, printer, and publisher who introduced printing to Europe. His invention of mechanical movable type printing started the Printing Revolution and is widely regarded as the most important event of the modern period.[1] It played a key role in the development of the Renaissance, Reformation, the Age of Enlightenment, and the Scientific Revolution and laid the material basis for the modern knowledge-based economy and the spread of learning to the masses.[2]

**Michelangelo di Lodovico Buonarroti Simoni** (6 March 1475 – 18 February 1564), commonly known as **Michelangelo** ( Italian pronunciation: [|[mikeˈlandʒelo]]  ), was an Italian sculptor, painter, architect, poet, and engineer of the [|High Renaissance] who exerted an unparalleled influence on the development of [|Western art]. [|[1]] Despite making few forays beyond the arts, his versatility in the disciplines he took up was of such a high order that he is often considered a contender for the title of the archetypal [|Renaissance man], along with his fellow Italian [|Leonardo da Vinci]. Michelangelo was considered the greatest living artist in his lifetime, and ever since then he has been held to be one of the greatest artists of all time. [|[1]] A number of his works in painting, sculpture, and architecture rank among the most famous in existence. [|[1]] His output in every field during his long life was prodigious; when the sheer volume of correspondence, sketches, and reminiscences that survive is also taken into account, he is the best-documented artist of the 16th century. Two of his best-known works, the // [|Pietà] // and // [|David] //, were sculpted before he turned thirty. Despite his low opinion of painting, Michelangelo also created two of the most influential works in [|fresco] in the history of Western art: the scenes from Genesis on the [|ceiling] and // [|The Last Judgment] // on the altar wall of the [|Sistine Chapel] in Rome. As an architect, Michelangelo pioneered the [|Mannerist] style at the [|Laurentian Library]. At the age of 74 he succeeded [|Antonio da Sangallo the Younger] as the architect of [|St. Peter's Basilica]. Michelangelo transformed the plan, the western end being finished to Michelangelo's design, the dome being completed after his death with some modification. In a demonstration of Michelangelo's unique standing, he was the first Western artist whose biography was published while he was alive. [|[2]] Two biographies were published of him during his lifetime; one of them, by [|Giorgio Vasari], proposed that he was the pinnacle of all artistic achievement since the beginning of the Renaissance, a viewpoint that continued to have currency in art history for centuries. In his lifetime he was also often called //Il Divino// ("the divine one"). [|[3]] One of the qualities most admired by his contemporaries was his //terribilità//, a sense of awe-inspiring grandeur, and it was the attempts of subsequent artists to imitate [|[4]] Michelangelo's impassioned and highly personal style that resulted in [|Mannerism], the next major movement in Western art after the [|High Renaissance]. Sandro Boticelli (1445-1510) was an Italian Renaissance painter who belonged to the Florentine School under the patronage of Lorenzo de' Medici. He is best known for his works //The Birth of Venus// and Primavera. His work is seen to represent the linear grace of Early Renaissance painting. His work, like that of other renaissance artists, focuses on the human form, and is more lifelike than medieval art. Some of his works, such as //The Birth of Venus//, are not quite anatomically correct, because Bottacelli was still figuring out proportions and other things. Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino (April 6 or March 28, 1483 – April 6, 1520), better known simply as Raphael, was an Italian painter and architect of the High Renaissance. His work is admired for its clarity of form and ease of composition and for its visual achievement of the Neoplatonic ideal of human grandeur. Together with Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci, he forms the traditional trinity of great masters of that period. Raphael was enormously productive, running an unusually large workshop, and despite his death at 37, a large body of his work remains. Many of his works are found in the Vatican Palace, where the frescoed Raphael Rooms were the central, and the largest, work of his career. The best known work is The School of Athens in the Vatican Stanza della Segnatura. After his early years in Rome much of his work was executed by his workshop from his drawings, with considerable loss of quality. He was extremely influential in his lifetime, though outside Rome his work was mostly known from his collaborative printmaking. After his death, the influence of his great rival Michelangelo was more widespread until the 18th and 19th centuries, when Raphael's more serene and harmonious qualities were again regarded as the highest models. His career falls naturally into three phases and three styles, first described by Giorgio Vasari: his early years in Umbria, then a period of about four years (1504–1508) absorbing the artistic traditions of Florence, followed by his last hectic and triumphant twelve years in Rome, working for two Popes and their close associates. On 25 May 1420, Henry gained appointment as the governor of the very rich Order of Christ, the Portuguese successor to the Knights Templar, which had its headquarters at Tomar. Henry would hold this position for the remainder of his life, and the order was an important source of funds for Henry's ambitious plans, especially his persistent attempts to conquer the Canary Islands, which the Portuguese had claimed to have discovered before the year 1346. His objectives included finding the source of the West African and the legendary Christian kingdom of Prester John, and stopping the pirate attacks on the Portuguese coast. At that time the ships of the Mediterranean were too slow and too heavy to make these voyages. Under his direction, a new and much lighter ship was developed, the caravel, which could sail further and faster. In 1419, Henry's father appointed him governor of the province of the Algarve. Amerigo Vespucci (March 9, 1454 – February 22, 1512) was an Italian explorer, financier, navigator and cartographer who first demonstrated that Brazil and the West Indies did not represent Asia's eastern outskirts as initially conjectured from Columbus' voyages, but instead constituted an entirely separate landmass hitherto unknown to Afro-Eurasians. Colloquially referred to as the New World, this second super continent came to be termed "America", probably deriving its name from the feminized Latin version of Vespucci's first name.
 * Fackrell- **Leonardo da Vinci- Was an Italian Renaissance polymath: painter, sculptor, architect, musician, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, geologist, cartographer, botanist, and writer. His genius, perhaps more than that of any other figure, epitomized the Renaissance humanist ideal. Leonardo has often been described as the archetype of the Renaissance Man, a man of "unquenchable curiosity" and "feverishly inventive imagination". He is widely considered to be one of the greatest painters of all time and perhaps the most diversely talented person ever to have lived. According to art historian Helen Gardner, the scope and depth of his interests were without precedent and "his mind and personality seem to us superhuman, the man himself mysterious and remote". Marco Rosci states that while there is much speculation about Leonardo, his vision of the world is essentially logical rather than mysterious, and that the empirical methods he employed were unusual for his time.
 * Gilbert- **Michelangelo-
 * Harper- **Bottacelli-
 * Heald- **Raphael-
 * Hunt- **Prince Henry (the Navigator)- Henry was an important figure during the Portuguese exploration and the age of discovery. He discovered the maritime trade routes for the Europeans. His explorations opened up many new trade routes for the Portuguese and Europeans in the are around the African coastline.
 * Jenkins- ** Amerigo Vespucci-
 * Johnson- **Christopher Columbus- Christopher Columbus was born in Genoa (located in Italy today) in 1451 to Domenico Colombo, a middle class wool-weaver, and Susanna Fontanarossa. Though little is known about his childhood, it is apparent that he was well-educated because he was able to speak several languages as an adult and had considerable knowledge of classical literature. In addition, he studied the works of Ptolemy and Marinus to name a few.Columbus first took to the sea when he was 14 years old and this continued throughout his younger life. During the 1470s, he went on numerous trading trips that took him to the Aegean Sea, Northern Europe, and possibly Iceland. In 1479, he met his brother Bartolomeo, a mapmaker, in Lisbon. He later married Filipa Moniz Perestrello and in 1480, his son Diego was born.The family stayed in Lisbon until 1485, when Columbus' wife Filipa died. From there, Columbus and Diego moved to Spain where he began trying to obtain a [[image:http://solidsaving-a.akamaihd.net/items/it/img/arrow-10x10.png height="10"]] to explore western trade routes. He believed that because the earth was sphere, a ship could reach the Far East and set up trading routes in Asia by sailing west.For years, Columbus proposed his plans to the Portuguese and Spanish kings, but he was turned down each time. Finally, after the Moors were expelled from Spain in 1492, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella reconsidered his requests. Columbus promised to bring back gold, spices, and silk from Asia, spread Christianity, and explore China. He then asked to be admiral of the seas and governor of discovered lands.After receiving significant funding from the Spanish monarchs, Columbus set sail on August 3, 1492 with three ships, the Pinta, Nina, and Santa Maria, and 104 men. After a short stop at the Canary Islands to resupply and make minor repairs, the ships set out across the Atlantic. This voyage took five weeks - much longer than Columbus expected, as he thought the world was smaller than it is. During this time, many of the crew members contracted diseases and died, or died from hunger and thirst.Finally, at 2 a.m. on October 12, 1492, Rodrigo de Triana, sighted land in area of the present-day Bahamas. When Columbus reached the land, he believed it was an Asian island and named it San Salvador. Because he did not find riches, Columbus decided to continue sailing in search of China. Instead, he ended up visiting Cuba and Hispaniola.On November 21, 1492, the Pinta and its crew left to explore on its own. Then on Christmas Day, Columbus' Santa Maria wrecked off the coast of Hispaniola. Because there was limited space on the lone Nina, Columbus had to leave about 40 men behind at a fort they named Navidad. Soon after, Columbus set sail for Spain, where he arrived on March 15, 1493, completing his first voyage west.After the success of finding this new land, Columbus set sail west again on September 23, 1493 with 17 ships and 1,200 men. The purpose of this journey was to establish colonies in the name of Spain, check on the crew at Navidad, and continue his search for riches in what he still thought was the Far East.On November 3, the crew members sighted land and found three more islands, Dominica, Guadeloupe, and Jamaica, which Columbus thought were islands off of Japan. Because there were still no riches there, they went on to Hispaniola, only to discover that the fort of Navidad had been destroyed and his crew killed after they mistreated the indigenous population.At the site of the fort Columbus established the colony of Santo Domingo and after a battle in 1495, he conquered the entire island of Hispaniola. He then set sail for Spain in March 1496, and arrived in Cadiz on July 31.

was a Portuguese explorer, one of the most successful in the Age of discovery and the commander of the first ships to sail directly from Europe to India.He is one of the most famous and celebrated explorers from the discovery ages, being the first European to reach India by sea. This discovery was very significant and paved the way for the Portuguese to establish a long lasting colonial empire in Asia. The route meant that the Portuguese would not need to cross the highly disputed Mediterranean nor the dangerous arabia, and that the whole voyage would be made by sea. After decades of sailors trying to reach India with thousands of lives and dozens of vessels lost in shipwrecks and attacks, Gama landed in Calicut on 20 May 1498. Reaching the legendary Indian [|s]pice routes unopposed helped the Portuguese Empire improve its economy that, until Gama, was mainly based on trades along Northern and coastal West Africa. These spices were mostly pepper and cinnamon at first, but soon included other products, all new to Europe which led to a commercial monopoly for several decades. Spanish captian who in 1519 initiated first circumnavigation of the globe; died during the voyage; allowed Spain to claim Philippines...Kirchoff Lapu Lapu was a ruler of Mactan, an island in the Visayas, Philippines, who is known as the first native of the archipelago to have resisted Spanish colonization. He was also resposible for the death of Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magallan. He is now regarded, retroactively, as the first Philippine hero. He is also known under the names Cilapu, Si Lapu-Lapu, Salip Pulaku, and Khalifa Lapu or Caliph Lapu (alternatively spelled as Cali Pulaco), though the historicity of the names is disputed. The inhabitants of the Sulu archipelago believe that Lapu-Lapu was a Muslim of the Tausug people. It is also believed that Lapu-Lapu and Rajah Humabon were the founders of the Sultanate of Cebu. The Philippine government has since erected a statue in his honour on Mactan Island and renamed the town of Opon in Cebu to Lapu-Lapu City. Another statue stands in Rizal Park in the national capital of Manila. Lapu-Lapu also appears on the official seal of the Philippine National Police and as the main design on the defunct I-cenatavo coin circulated in the Philippines from 1967 to 1974. During the First Regular Season of the 14th Congress of the Philippines, senator Richard Gordon introduced a bill proposing to declare April 27th as an official Philippine national holiday to be known as Aolaw ni Lapu-Lapu, (Cebuano, 'Day of Lapu-Lapu'). Fun-Fact (: --In the United States, a street in the South of Market neighborhood of San Francisco, California is named after Lapu-Lapu.
 * Jones- **Vasco da Gama-
 * Juell- **Ferdinand Magellan
 * Kirchoff- **Lapu Lapu

__ Battle of Mactan __ Lapu-Lapu became one of two datus of Mactan before the Spanish arrived in the archipelago, the other being a certain Zula. When Portuguese explorer and conquistador Ferdinand Magellan arrived in the Philippines in the service of Spain, Zula was one of those who gave tribute to the Spanish king while Lapu-Lapu refused. Others suggest that the Battle of Mactan occurred in Mactan,Camotes Island. On the morning of April 27, 1521, Lapu-Lapu led 3,000 warriors in a battle against Portuguese explorer and conquistador Ferdinand Magellan who led a force of forty-nine Spanish soldiers and 6000 native warriors from Cebu. During the battle Magellan and several of his men were killed. The historian William Henry Scott believes that Lapu-Lapu's hostility may have been the result of a mistaken assumption by Ferdinand Magellan. Magellan assumed that ancient Filipino society was structured in the same way as European society (i.e. with royalty ruling over a region). While this may have been true in the Islamic sultanates in Mindanao, the Visayan societies were structured along a loose federation of city-states (more accurately, a chiefdom). The most powerful datu in such a federation has limited power over other member datu, but they had no direct control over the subjects or lands of the other datu. Thus Magellan believed wrongly that since Rajah Humabon was the "king" of Cebu, he was the king of Mactan as well. But the island of Mactan, the domain of Lapu-Lapu and Zula, was in a location that enabled them to intercept trade ships entering the harbor of Cebu, Humabon's domain. Thus it was more likely that Lapu-Lapu was actually more powerful than Humabon, or at least was the undisputed ruler of Mactan. Humabon himself was married to Lapu-Lapu's niece. When Magellan demanded that Lapu-Lapu submit as his "king" Humabon had done, Lapu-Lapu purportedly replied that "he was unwilling to come and do reverence to one whom he had been commanding for so long a time." The historical name of Lapu-Lapu is controversial. The earliest record of his name is from the Italian explorer Antonio Pigafetta who accompanied Magellan in the Philippines. He records the names of two chiefs of the island of "Matan", the chiefs "Zula" and "Çilapulapu". In an annotation of the 1890 edition of Antonio de Morga's Sucesos de las islas Filipinas, José Rizal spells this name as "Si Lapulapu" without explanation. However, the 17th century mestizo de sangley poet Carlos Calao mentions Lapu-Lapu under the name of "Cali Pulaco" in his poem Que Dios Le Perdone (That God May Forgive Him). The name, spelled "Kalipulako", was later adopted as one of the pseudonyms of the Philippine hero, Mariano Ponce, during the Philippine Revolution. The 1898 Philippine Declaration of Independence of Cavite II el Viejo, also mentions Lapu-Lapu under the name "Rey Kalipulako de Manktan" (King Kalipulako of Mactan).


 * Looney- **Bartolmeo Dias

(1450-1500) Bartolmeu Dias was a portuguese explorer. He was the first portuguese explorer to sail around the southern tip of Africa. He Paved the way for a sea route from Europe to Asia. Ships rounded the cape of good hope and entered the waters of the Indian ocean. This expedition added the portuguese into the indian ocean trade. It increased trade with India and Asia allowing new ideas an innovations to be transferred. It promoted the expedition of Christopher Columbus and the discovery of the new world.

**Martinez- **Cosimo de Medic.
 * Cosimo di Giovanni de' Medici** (27 September 1389 – 1 August 1464) was the first of the Medici political dynasty, //de facto// rulers of Florence during much of the Italian [|Renaissance]; also known as "Cosimo 'the Elder'" and "Cosimo //Pater Patriae//". His power over Florence stemmed from his wealth, which he used to control votes. As Florence was proud of its 'democracy', he pretended to have little political ambition, and did not often hold public office. In 1433 Cosimo's power over Florence, which he exerted without occupying public office, began to look like a menace to the anti-Medici party, led by figures such as Palla Strozzi and Rinaldo degli Albizzi: in September of that year he was imprisoned, accused for the failure of the conquest of Lucca, but he managed to turn the jail term into one of exile. He went to Padua and then to Venice, taking his bank along with him. Prompted by his influence and his money, others followed him: within a year, the flight of capital from Florence was so great that the ban of exile had to be lifted. Cosimo returned a year later in 1434, to greatly influence the government of Florence and to lead by example for the rest of his long life. Cosimo was also noted for his patronage of culture and the arts during the Renaissance, liberally spending the family fortune to enrich Florence.
 * Measom- **The de Medici family
 * The House of Medici –was a political dynasty, banking family and later royal house that first began to gather prominence under Cosimo de' Medici in the Republic of Florence during the late 14th century. The family originated in the Mugello region of the Tuscan countryside, gradually rising until they were able to fund the Medici Bank. The bank was the largest in Europe during the 15th century, seeing the Medici gain political power in Florence — though officially they remained citizens rather than monarchs. **
 * <span style="color: #24c2c0; font-family: Webdings,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">The Medici four Popes of the Catholic Church—Pope Leo X (1513–1521), Pope Clement VII (1523–1534), Pope Pius IV (1559–1565), and Pope Leo XI (1605);[1] two regent queens of France—Catherine de' Medici (1547–1559) and Marie de' Medici (1600–1610); and, in 1531, the family became hereditary Dukes of Florence. In 1569, the duchy was elevated to a grand duchy after territorial expansion. They ruled the Grand Duchy of Tuscany from its inception until 1737, with the death of Gian Gastone de' Medici. The grand duchy witnessed degrees of economic growth under the earlier grand dukes, but by the time of Cosimo III de' Medici, Tuscany was fiscally bankrupt. **
 * <span style="color: #24c2c0; font-family: Webdings,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Their wealth and influence initially derived from the textile trade guided by the guild of the Arte della Lana. Like other signore families they dominated their city's government, they were able to bring Florence under their family's power, allowing for an environment where art and humanism could flourish. They fostered and inspired the birth of the Italian Renaissance along with other families of Italy, such as the Visconti and Sforza of Milan, the Este of Ferrara, and the Gonzaga of Mantua. **
 * <span style="color: #24c2c0; font-family: Webdings,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">The Medici Bank was one of the most prosperous and most respected institutions in Europe. There are some estimates that the Medici family were the wealthiest family in Europe for a period of time. From this base, they acquired political power initially in Florence and later in wider Italy and Europe. A notable contribution to the profession of accounting was the improvement of the general ledger system through the development of the double-entry bookkeeping system for tracking credits and debits. The Medici family was among the earliest businesses to use the system. **

Machiavelli was born in Florence, Italy, the first son and third child of attorney Bernardo di Niccolò Machiavelli and his wife Bartolomea di Stefano Nelli The Machiavelli family are believed to be descended from the old marquesses of Tuscany and to have produced thirteen Florentine Gonfalonieres of Justice one of the offices of a group of nine citizens selected by drawing lots every two months, who formed the government, or Signoria. However he was never a full citizen of Florence, due to the nature of Florentine citizenship in that time, even under the republican regime. Statue at the Uffizi Machiavelli was born in a tumultuous era—popes waged acquisitive wars against Italian city-states, and people and cities often fell from power. Along with the pope and the major cities like Venice and Florence, foreign powers such as France, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, and even Switzerland battled for regional influence and control. Political-military alliances continually changed, featuring condottieli (mercenary leaders) who changed sides without warning, and the rise and fall of many short-lived governments. Machiavelli was taught grammar, rhetoric, and Latin. It is thought that he did not learn Greek, even though Florence was at the time one of the centers of Greek scholarship in Europe. In 1494, Florence restored the republic—expelling the Medici family, who had ruled Florence for some sixty years. Shortly after the execution of Savonarola, Machiavelli was appointed to an office of the second chancery, a medieval writing office which put Machiavelli in charge of the production of official Florentine government documents. Shortly thereafter, he was also made the secretary of the //Dieci di Libertà e Pace.// In the first decade of the sixteenth century he carried out several diplomatic missions: most notably to the Papacy in Rome, in the Italian states. Moreover, from 1502 to 1503 he witnessed the brutal reality of the state-building methods of Cesare Borgia (1475–1507) and his father Pope Alexander VI who were then engaged in the process of trying to bring a large part of central Italy under their possession. The pretext of defending Church interests was used as a partial justification by the Borgias. Other excursions to the court of Louis XII and the Spanish court influenced his writings, and appear in //The Prince// and several other of his non-fiction works. Between 1503 and 1506 Machiavelli was responsible for the Florentine militia. He distrusted mercenaries (a distrust he explained in his official reports and then later in his theoretical works, due to their unpatriotic and uninvested nature in war, making their allegiance fickle and often to waver when most needed), and instead staffed his army with citizens, a policy which proved to be successful many times: under his command Florentine citizen-soldiers defeated Pisa in 1509. However, Machiavelli's success could not last. in August 1512 the Medici, helped by Pope Julius II, used Spanish troops to defeat the Florentines at Prato, although many historians have argued that this was due to Piero Soderini's unwillingness to compromise with the Medici who were holding Prato under siege. In the wake of the siege, Piero Soderini resigned as Florentine head of state and left in exile. This experience would, like Machiavelli's time in foreign courts and with the Borgia, heavily influence his political writings. Hence, the Florentine city-state and the republic was dissolved. Machiavelli was deprived of office in 1512 by the Medici. In 1513, the Medici accused him of conspiracy against the Medici family and had him imprisoned. Despite having been subjected to torture ("with the rope", where the prisoner is hanged from his bound wrists, from the back, forcing the arms to bear the body's weight, thus dislocating the shoulders), he denied involvement and was released after three weeks.
 * Monteith- **Nicollo Machiavelli -


 * Nguyen- **Dante Alighieri -(1265-1321) Durante degli Alighieri, simply referred to as Dante, was a major Italian poet of the Middle Ages. His Divine Comedy, originally called Comedìa and later called Divina by Boccaccio, is widely considered the greatest literary work composed in the Italian language and a masterpiece of world literature.In Italy he is known as il Sommo Poeta ("the Supreme Poet") or just il Poeta. He, Petrarch and Boccaccio are also known as "the three fountains" or "the three crowns". Dante is also called "the Father of the Italian language".
 * Rajpurohit- **Erasmus-
 * Rivers- **Galileo-[[image:http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg/220px-Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg width="152" height="141" align="right" caption="Nikolaus Kopernikus.jpg" link="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nikolaus_Kopernikus.jpg"]]
 * Schaefer- **Copernicus-Renaissance mathematician and astronomer formulated a heliocentric model of the universe which placed the Sun, rather than the Earth, at the center, the publication of his book, //D////e revolutionibus orbium coelestium// (//On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres//), just before his death in 1543, is considered a major [[image:http://giantsavings-a.akamaihd.net/items/it/img/arrow-10x10.png height="10"]] in the history of science and began the Copernican Revolution and contributed majorly to the scientific revolution, born and died in Royal Prussia, a region of the Kingdom of Poland since 1466, had doctorate in canon law and, though without [[image:http://giantsavings-a.akamaihd.net/items/it/img/arrow-10x10.png height="10"]], was a physician, polyglot, classics scholar, translator, governor, diplomat, and economist who in 1517 set down a quantity theory of [[image:http://giantsavings-a.akamaihd.net/items/it/img/arrow-10x10.png height="10"]] , a principal concept in economics to the present day, and formulated a version of Gresham's law in 1519, before Gresham

German monk; initiated Protestant Reformation in 1517 by nailing 95 theses to door of Wittenburg castle; emphasized primacy of faith over works stressed in Catholic church; accepted state control of Church...Kirchoff <span style="color: #8e6ee5; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Influential French theologian and pastor during the Protestant Reformation. He was a principal figure in the development of the system gof Christian theology later called Calvinism. Originally trained as a humanist lawyer, he broke from the Roman Catholic Church around 1530. After religious tensions provoked a violent uprising against Protestants in France, Calvin fled to Basel, Switzerland, where he published the first edition of his seminal work Institutes of the Christian Religion in 1536. I <span style="color: #8e6ee5; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: 1.5;">n that year, Calvin was recruited by William Farel to help reform the church in Geneva. The city council resisted the implementation of Calvin's and Farel's ideas, and both men were expelled. At the invitation of Martin Bucer, Calvin proceeded to Strasbourg, where he became the minister of a church of French refugees. He continued to support the reform movement in Geneva, and was eventually invited back to lead its church. Following his return, Calvin introduced new forms of church government and liturgy, despite the opposition of several powerful families in the city who tried to curb his authority. During this period, Michael Servetus, a Spaniard known for his heretical views, arrived in Geneva. He was denounced by Calvin and executed by the city council. Following an influx of supportive refugees and new elections to the city council, Calvin's opponents were forced out. Calvin spent his final years promoting the Reformation both in Geneva and throughout Europe. <span style="color: #8e6ee5; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; line-height: 1.5;">Calvin was a tireless polemic and apologetic writer who generated much controversy. He also exchanged cordial and supportive letters with many reformers, including Philipp Melanchthonand Heinrich Bullinger. In addition to the Institutes, he wrote commentaries on most books of the Bible, as well as theological treatises and confessional documents. He regularly preached sermons throughout the week in Geneva. Calvin was influenced by the Augustinian tradition, which led him to expound the doctrine of predestination and the absolute sovereignty of God insalvation of the human soul from death and eternal damnation. <span style="color: #8e6ee5; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Calvin's writing and preaching provided the seeds for the branch of theology that bears his name. The Reformed, Congregational, and Presbyterian churches, which look to Calvin as the chief expositor of their beliefs, have spread throughout the world.
 * Thomas- **Tycho Brahe- ** Tycho Brahe- (14 December 1546 – 24 October 1601). He was a Danish nobleman known for his accurate and comprehensive astronomical and planetary observations. In his De nova stella (On the new star) of 1573, he used the Aristotelian belif in an unchanging celestial realm. His precise measurements indicated that "new stars" were not "atmospheric", but were above the atmosphere and moon. He also showed that comets were also not atmospheric, but "immutable" celestial spheres. He was the last major naked eye astronomer, working without telescopes for his observations. He was granted an estate on the islad of Hven and the funding to build the Uraniborg, an early research institute, where he built large astronomical instruments, and later Stjernborg. On the island he demonstrated autocratic character and behavior toward residents, he founded manufactories such as paper-making to provide material for printing his results.After disagreements with the new Danish king, Christian IV in 1597, he was invited by the Bohemian king and Holy Roman emperor, Rudolph II to Prague, where he became the new official imperial astronomer until he died in 1601. **
 * Ali- **Issac Newton: The capstone to the scientific revolution came in 1687, when Isaac Newton published his principia mathematica. This work drew the various astronomical and physical observations and wider theories together in a neat framework of natural laws. Newton set fourth the basic principles of all motion for example, that a body in motion maintains uniform momentum unless affected by outside forces such as friction Newton defined the forces of gravity in great mathematical details and showed that the whole universe responded to these forces, which among other things explained the planetary orbits described by kepler.
 * Arellano- **Johannes Kepler was a German mathematician, astronomer and astrologer. A key figure in the 17th century scientific revolution, he is best known for his eponymous laws of planetary motion, codified by later astronomers, based on his works //Astronomia nova//, //Harmonices Mundi//, and //Epitome of Copernican Astronomy//. These works also provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton's theory of universal gravitation. Kepler incorporated religious arguments and reasoning into his work, motivated by the religious conviction and belief that God had created the world according to an intelligible plan that is accessible through the natural light of reason.Kepler described his new astronomy as "celestial physics", as "an excursion into Aristotle's //Metaphysics//", and as "a supplement to Aristotle's //On the Heavens//", transforming the ancient tradition of physical cosmology by treating astronomy as part of a universal mathematical physics.
 * Baylee- **Martin Luther
 * Melana- **Jean Calvin --

John Locke was an English philosopher and physician regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers. Considered one of the first of the British empiricists, he is equally important to social contract theory. His work had a great impact upon the development of epistemology and political philosophy. His writings influenced Voltaire and Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the American revolutionaries. His contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in the United States Declaration of Independence. Locke's theory of mind is often cited as the origin of modern conceptions of identity and the self, figuring prominently in the work of later philosophers such as Hume, Rousseau and Kant. Locke was the first to define the self through a continuity of consciousness. He postulated that the mind was a blank slate or tabula rasa. Contrary to pre-existing Cartesian philosophy, he maintained that we are born without innate ideas, and that knowledge is instead determined only by experience derived from sense perception. **Adam Smith** (5 June 1723 [|OS] (16 June 1723 [|NS] ) – 17 July 1790) was a Scottish [|moral philosopher] and a pioneer of [|political economy]. One of the key figures of the [|Scottish Enlightenment], [|[1]] Adam Smith is best known for two classic works: // [|The Theory of Moral Sentiments] // (1759), and // [|An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations] // (1776). The latter, usually abbreviated as //The Wealth of Nations//, is considered his // [|magnum opus] // and the first modern work of [|economics]. Smith is cited as the "father of [|modern economics] " and is still among the most influential thinkers in the field of economics today. [|[2]] Smith studied [|social philosophy] at the [|University of Glasgow] and at [|Balliol College, Oxford], where he was one of the first students to benefit from scholarships set up by his fellow [|Glaswegian] John Snell. After graduating, he delivered a successful series of public lectures at the [|University of Edinburgh], leading him to collaborate with [|David Hume] during the [|Scottish Enlightenment]. Smith obtained a professorship at Glasgow teaching moral philosophy, and during this time he wrote and published //The Theory of Moral Sentiments//. In his later life, he took a tutoring position that allowed him to travel throughout Europe, where he met other intellectual leaders of his day. Smith then returned home and spent the next ten years writing //The Wealth of Nations//, publishing it in 1776. He died in 1790 at the age of 67. Denis Diderot was a French philosopher, art critic, and writer. He was a prominent person during the Enlightenment and is best known for serving as co-founder, chief editor, and contributor to the Encyclopédie along with Jean le Rond d'Alembert. he was born October 10, 1713 in France and died July 31, 1784
 * Barner- **John Knox: ** John Knox was a Scottish clergyman and a leader of the Protestant Reformation, and who is considered the founder of the Presbyterian denomination in Scotland. He got caught associated with the murder of Cardinal Beaton and was exiled to England in about 1549. While in exile, he was licensed to work in the Church of England, in which he rose in the ranks to serve King Edward IV of England as a royal chaplain. In England, he met John Calvin, from which he learned about reformed theology and Presbyterian policy, which is why he is considered the founder of the denomination. On his way back to Scotland, he started the Protestant Reformation, which ousted Mary of Guise. Knox then helped write the new confession of faith and the ecclesiastical order for the newly created reformed church, the Kirk. He continued to serve as the religious leader of the Protestants, where he would remain for the rest of his days. **
 * Bassett- **Joseph Zwingli
 * Bates- **Ignacius Loyola - ** A Spanish knight, priest, and theologian who started the Society of Jesus and became its Supreme General. He was a religious leader during the Counter-Reformation. He was very devoted to the Catholic church and displayed absolute obedience to the Pope. He was severely wounded in the battle of Battle of Pamplona and after that he became a hermit. He started praying for hours every day. **
 * Achievements: Between 1524 and 1537, Ignatius studied theology and Latin in the University of Alcalá and then in Paris. In 1534, he arrived in the latter city during a period of anti-Protestant turmoil which forced John Calvin to flee France. Ignatius and a few followers bound themselves by vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. In 1539, they formed the Society of Jesus, approved in 1540 by Pope Paul III, as well as his Spiritual Exercises approved in 1548. Loyola also composed the Constitutions of the Society. He died in July 1556, was beatified by Pope Paul V in 1609, canonized by Pope Gregory XV in 1622, and declared patron of all spiritual retreats by Pope Pius XI in 1922. Ignatius' feast day is celebrated on July 31. Ignatius is a foremost patron saint of soldiers, the Society of Jesus, the Basque Country, and the provinces of Gipuzkoa and Biscay. **
 * Boboy- **Thomas Hobbes- Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury ( April 5, 1588 – December 4,1679), in some older texts Thomas Hobbs of Malmsbury, was an English philosopher, best known today for his work on political philosophy. His 1651 book Leviathan established the foundation for most of Western political philosophy from the perspective of social contract theory.Hobbes was a champion of absolutism for the sovereign, but he also developed some of the fundamentals of European liberal thought: the right of the individual; the natural equality of all men; the artificial character of the political order (which led to the later distinction between civil society and the state); the view that all legitimate political power must be "representative" and based on the consent of the people; and a liberal interpretation of law which leaves people free to do whatever the law does not explicitly forbid.He was one of the founders of modern political philosophy and political science.His understanding of humans as being matter and motion, obeying the same physical laws as other matter and motion, remains influential; and his account of human nature as self-interested cooperation, and of political communities as being based upon a "social contract" remains one of the major topics of political philosophy.
 * Boyer- **John Locke
 * Caliman- **Adam Smith -
 * Elbushra- **Denis Diderot



//needed//]
 * Eubank- ** Montesquieu was a French social commentator and political thinker who lived during the Age of Enlightenment. He is famous for his articulation of the theory of separation of powers, which is implemented in many constitutions throughout the world. He did more than any other author to secure the place of the word despotism in the political lexicon,[1] and may have been partly responsible for the popularization of the terms feudalism and Byzantine Empire. [//citation //

The **Treaty of Tordesillas** ( [|Portuguese] : //Tratado de Tordesilhas// [|[tɾɐˈtaðu ðɨ tuɾðɨˈziʎɐʃ]] , [|Spanish] : //Tratado de Tordesillas//  [|[tɾaˈtaðo ðe toɾðeˈsiʎas]]  ), signed at [|Tordesillas] (now in [|Valladolid province] , [|Spain] ) on 7 June 1494 and authenticated at [|Setúbal] , [|Portugal] , divided the newly discovered lands outside [|Europe] between [|Portugal] and [|Spain] along a [|meridian] 370 [|leagues][|[note 1]] west of the [|Cape Verde] islands (off the west coast of Africa). This line of demarcation was about halfway between the Cape Verde Islands (already Portuguese) and the islands entered by [|Christopher Columbus] on his first voyage (claimed for Spain), named in the treaty as [|Cipangu] and [|Antilia] ( [|Cuba] and [|Hispaniola] ). The lands to the east would belong to Portugal and the lands to the west to Spain. The treaty was ratified by Spain (at the time, the Crowns of [|Castile] and [|Aragon] ), 2 July 1494 and by Portugal, 5 September 1494. The other side of the world would be divided a few decades later by the [|Treaty of Zaragoza] or Saragossa, signed on 22 April 1529, which specified the [|antimeridian] to the line of demarcation specified in the Treaty of Tordesillas. Originals of both treaties are kept at the [|Archivo General de Indias] in Spain and at the [|Arquivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo] in Portugal. [|[6]] The Peace of Westphalia was a series of peace treaties signed in 1648. The treaties ended the Thirty Years' War in the Holy Roman Empire and the Eighty Years' War between Spain and the Dutch republic, with Spain recognizing the Dutch Republic's independence. The treaty represented the triumph of sovereignty over empire and stood as a precursor to international law, and it also stood as a basis for national self-determination. The Principia Mathematica is a three-volume work on the foundations of mathematics, written by Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell and published in 1910, 1912, and 1913. In 1927, it appeared in a second edition with an important Introduction To the Second Edition, an Appendix A that replaced ✸9 and an all-new Appendix C. PM, as it is often abbreviated, was an attempt to describe a set of axioms and inference rules in symbolic logic from which all mathematical truths could in principle be proven. As such, this ambitious project is of great importance in the history of mathematics and philosophy, being one of the foremost products of the belief that such an undertaking may have been achievable. However, in 1931, Gödel's incompleteness theorem proved definitively that PM, and in fact any other attempt, could never achieve this lofty goal; that is, for any set of axioms and inference rules proposed to encapsulate mathematics, there would in fact be some truths of mathematics which could not be deduced from them. One of the main inspirations and motivations for PM was the earlier work of Gottlob Frege on logic, which Russell discovered allowed for the construction of paradoxical sets. PM sought to avoid this problem by ruling out the unrestricted creation of arbitrary sets. This was achieved by replacing the notion of a general set with notion of a hierarchy of sets of different 'types', a set of a certain type only allowed to contain sets of strictly lower types. Contemporary mathematics, however, avoids paradoxes such as Russell's in less unwieldy ways, such as the system of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory. PM is not to be confused with Russell's 1903 Principles of Mathematics. PM states: "The present work was originally intended by us to be comprised in a second volume of Principles of Mathematics... But as we advanced, it became increasingly evident that the subject is a very much larger one than we had supposed; moreover on many fundamental questions which had been left obscure and doubtful in the former work, we have now arrived at what we believe to be satisfactory solutions." The Modern Library placed it 23rd in a list of the top 100 English-language nonfiction books of the twentieth century.
 * Fackrell- **Rousseau- Was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer of the 18th-century. His political philosophy influenced the French Revolution as well as the overall development of modern political, sociological, and educational thought. He argued that private property was the start of civilization, inequality, murders and wars.
 * Gilbert- **Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)-
 * Harper- **Treaty of Westphalia (1648)
 * Heald- **Mathmetica Pricipia
 * Hunt- **The Prince The Prince, by Niccolò Machiavelli, is a political discourse over how princedom works in the time it was written. The book also talks about the good sides and bad sides of every form of government, from oligarchy to democracy. Each chapter of the book thoroughly details every aspect of how princedoms operate and how they should operate. The book was viewed as a major work of modern philosophy. It recieved criticism and praise from many people, as it conflicted with political and church doctrines. The book was released by the pope, even though it caused controversy, five years after Machiavelli died. [[image:Machiavelli_Principe_Cover_Page.jpg width="232" height="300"]]

** Jenkins- **The Divine Comedy
The Divine Comedy (Italian: Divina Commedia) is an epic poem written by Dante Alighieri between c. 1308 and his death in 1321. It is widely considered the preeminent work of Italian literature, and is seen as one of the greatest works of world literature. The poem's imaginative and allegorical vision of the afterlife is a culmination of the medieval world-view as it had developed in the Western Church. It helped establish the Tuscan dialect, in which it is written, as the standardized Italian language. It is divided into three parts: Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso. On the surface, the poem describes Dante's travels through Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven; but at a deeper level, it represents allegorically the soul's journey towards God. At this deeper level, Dante draws on medieval Christian theology and philosophy, especially Thomistic philosophy and the Summa Theologica of Thomas Aquinas. Consequently, the Divine Comedy has been called "the Summa in verse". The work was originally simply titled Comedìa and was later christened Divina by Giovanni Boccaccio. The first printed edition to add the word divine to the title was that of the Venetian humanist Lodovico Dolce, published in 1555 by Gabriele Giolito de' Ferrari.
 * Johnson- **Encyclopédie
 * Jones- **Leviathan- **is a sea monster referenced in the Tanakh, or the old testament.**


 * The word has become synonymous with any large sea monster or creature. In literature) it refers to great whales, and in modern Hebrew, it means simply "whale". It is described extensively in Job 41 and mentioned in Isaiah 27:1. The Leviathan of the Middle Ages was used as an image of S atan, endangering both God's creatures—by attempting to eat them—and God's creation—by threatening it with upheaval in the waters of Chaos. St. Thomas Aquinas described Leviathan as the demon of e nvy , first in punishing the corresponding sinners (Secunda Secundae Question 36). Leviathan became associated with, and may originally have referred to, the visual motif of the Hellmouth, a monstrous animal into whose mouth the damned disappear at the L ast judgement , found in art from about 800, and later all over Europe. **



A treatise on political theory first published anonymously by Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu in 1748 with the help of Claudone Guerin de Tencin. Originally published anonymously partly because Montesquieu's works were subject to censorship, its influence outside of France was aided by its rapid translation into. In 1750 Thomas Nugent published the first English translation. In 1751 the Catholic Church added De i'esprit lois, to its Index Librorum Prohibitorum ('List of Prohibited Books). Yet Montesquieu's political treatise had an enormous influence on the work of many others, most notably: Catherine the Great, who produced Nakaz (Instruction);the Founding Fathers of the United States Constitution;and Alexis de Tocqueville, who applied Montesquieu's methods to a study of American Society, in Democracy in America. Macaulay offers us a hint of Montesquieu's importance when he writes in his 1827 essay entitled 'Machiavelli' that 'Montesquieuenjoys, perhaps, a wider celebrity than any political writer of modern Europe'. Montesquieu spent around twenty one years researching and writing De I'esprit des lois (the Spirit of the Laws), covering many things like the law, social life, and the study of anthropology and providing more than 3,000 commendations. In this political treatise Montesquieu pleaded in favor of a constitutional system of government and the seperation of powers, the ending slavery, the preservation of civil liberites and the law, and the idea that political institutions ought to reflect the social and geographical aspects of each community. __ Constitutional theory __
 * Juell- ** Two Treatises on Civil Government
 * Kirchoff- **The Spirit of Laws

In his classification of political systems, Montesquieu defines three main kinds: republican, monarchical, and despotic. As he defines them, Republican political systems vary depending on how broadly they extend citizenship rights—those that extend citizenship relatively broadly are termed democratic republics, while those that restrict citizenship more narrowly are termed aristocratic republics. The distinction between monarchy and despotism hinges on whether or not a fixed set of laws exists that can restrain the authority of the ruler: if so, the regime counts as a monarchy; if not, it counts as despotism. __ Principles that motivate citizen behavior according to Montesquieu __ Driving each classification of political system, according to Montesquieu, must be what he calls a "principle". This principle acts as a spring or motor to motivate behavior on the part of the citizens in ways that will tend to support that regime and make it function smoothly.


 * For democratic republics (and to a somewhat lesser extent for aristocratic republics), this spring is the love of virtue—the willingness to put the interests of the community ahead of private interests.
 * For monarchies, the spring is the love of honor—the desire to attain greater rank and privilege.
 * Finally, for despotisms, the spring is the fear of the ruler.

A political system cannot last long if its appropriate principle is lacking. Montesquieu claims, for example, that the English failed to establish a republic after the Civil War (1642–1651) because the society lacked the requisite love of virtue. __ Liberty and the separation of powers __ A second major theme in De l'esprit des lois concerns political liberty and the best means of preserving it. "Political liberty" is Montesquieu's concept of what we might call today personal security, especially insofar as this is provided for through a system of dependable and moderate laws. He distinguishes this view of liberty from two other, misleading views of political liberty. The first is the view that liberty consists in collective self-government—i.e. that liberty and democracy are the same. The second is the view that liberty consists in being able to do whatever one wants without constraint. Not only are these latter two not genuine political liberty, he thinks, they can both be hostile to it. Political liberty is not possible in a despotic political system, but it is possible, though not guaranteed, in republics and monarchies. Generally speaking, establishing political liberty on a sound footing requires two things: Building on and revising a discussion in John Locke's Second Treatise of Government, Montesquieu argues that the executive, legislative, and judicial functions of government should be assigned to different bodies, so that attempts by one branch of government to infringe on political liberty might be restrained by the other branches. (Habeas Corpus is an example of a check that the Judiciary branch has on the Executive branch of government.) In a lengthy discussion of the English political system, he tries to show how this might be achieved and liberty secured, even in a monarchy. He also notes that liberty cannot be secure where there is no separation of powers, even in a republic. Montesquieu intends what modern legal scholars might call the rights to "robust procedural due process", including the right to a fair trial, the presumption of innocence and the proportionality in the severity of punishment. Pursuant to this requirement to frame civil and criminal laws appropriately to ensure political liberty (i.e., personal security), Montesquieu also argues against slavery and for the freedom of thought, speech and assembly. __ Climate, culture, and society __ The third major contribution of De l'esprit des lois was to the field of political sociology, which Montesquieu is often credited with more or less inventing. The bulk of the treatise, in fact, concerns how geography and climate interact with particular cultures to produce the "spirit" of a people. This spirit, in turn, inclines that people toward certain sorts of political and social institutions, and away from others. Later writers often caricatured Montesquieu's theory by suggesting that he claimed to explain legal variation simply by the distance of a community from the equator. While the analysis in De l'esprit des lois is much more subtle than these later writers perceive, many of his specific claims appear foolish to modern readers. Nevertheless, his approach to politics from a naturalistic or scientific point of view proved very influential, directly or indirectly inspiring modern fields of political science, sociology, and anthropology. The social contract is a moral and political philosophy that questioned society and the legitimacy of political authority. It argued against the idea that monarchies were divinely empowered. It questioned the relation between natural and legal rights. The beginning of the political theories all started with Thomas Hobbes. He stated that individual actions are bound only by their own personal power. He believed in order to prevent anarchy we must establish a political community or civil society through social contract in the form of a absolute government. Other theorists like John Locke argued that we gain civil rights in return to respecting and defending others. He believed law and political order were not natural but a human creation. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">The Treaty of Tordesillas was agreed upon by the Spanish and the Portuguese to clear up confusion on newly claimed land in the New World. The early 1400s brought about great advances in European exploration. In order make trade more efficient, Portugal attempted to find a direct water route to the India and China. By using a direct water route, Arab merchants, who owned land trade routes, were not able to make a profit off of the European trade merchants. After Columbus discovered the New World in 1492, it was clear that conflict would soon arise over land claims by Spain and Portugal. The Portuguese also wanted to protect their monopoly on the trade route to Africa and felt threatened. It was only after the realization that Columbus had found something big that land became the important issue. The newly discovered land held great potential wealth which would benefit European nations. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">On May 4, 1493 Pope Alexander VI took action to clear up any confusion that may have arisen over territorial claims. He issued a decree which established an imaginary line running north and south through the mid-Atlantic, 100 leagues (480 km) from the Cape Verde islands. Spain would have possession of any unclaimed territories to the west of the line and Portugal would have possession of any unclaimed territory to the east of the line. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">fter further exploration, the Portuguese grew dissatisfied with the agreement when they realized how much more land Spain had been given. In June of 1494 the line was re-negotiated and the agreement was officially ratified during a meeting in the Spanish town of Tordesillas. The Treaty of Tordesillas re-established the line 370 leagues (1,770 km) west of the Cape Verde Islands. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">It was evident that little exploration had taken place at the time the treaty was signed because Spain was granted a much larger portion of land. Portugal was only given possession of Brazil. Portugal pushed over the next several hundred years to move the border of Brazil westward. Because the line was not very well defined, the Spanish did not put up any opposition to this Portuguese expansion.
 * The separation of the powers of government.
 * The appropriate framing of civil and criminal laws so as to ensure personal security.
 * Looney- ** The Social Contract-
 * Martinez- **The Wealth of Nations Treaty of Tordesilas (1494)

Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda (1489 – 17 November 1573) was a Spanish humanist, philosopher and theologian. In 1533 and 1534 he wrote to Desiderius Erasmus from Rome concerning differences between Erasmus's Greek New Testament (the Textus Receptus), and the Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209. He was the adversary of Bartolomé de las Casas in the Valladolid Controversy in 1550 concerning the justification of the Spanish Conquest of the Indies. Sepúlveda was the defender of the Spanish Empire's right of conquest, of colonization, and of evangelization in the so-called New World. He argued on the base of natural law philosophy(to the use of reason to analyze human nature —both social and personal—and deduce binding rules of moral behavior from it) and developed a position which was different from the position of the School of Salamanca, as represented famously by Francisco de Vitoria. The Valladolid Controversy was o rganized by King Charles V (grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella) to give an answer to the question whether the Native Americans were capable of self-governance. Sepúlveda defended the position of the colonists, although he had never been to America, claiming that the Amerindians were "natural slaves " as defined by Aristotle in Book I of Politics. "Those whose condition is such that their function is the use of their bodies and nothing better can be expected of them, those, I say, are slaves of nature. It is better for them to be ruled thus." He said the natives are "as children to parents, as women are to men, as cruel people are from mild people". Although Aristotle was a primary source for Sepúlveda's argument, he also pulled from various Christian and other classical sources, including the Bible. Las Casas utilized the same sources in his counterargument. According to Bartolomé de las Casas, Jesus had power over all people in the world, including those who had never heard of Christianity. However, he thought that Christianity should be presented to natives as a religious option, not an obligation as Sepulveda believed. Las Casas thought they should be governed just like any other people in Spain, while Sepúlveda thought they should become slaves. Today, Sepúlveda's opinions would be considered extremely racist, though in the 16th century they were not extraordinary. At the end of the debate, Charles V adopted neither Sepúlveda's or Las Casas' arguments, and adopted Francisco de Vitoria's recommendations.
 * Measom ** -Juan Gines de Sepulvdeda--

Vasco Nunez de Balboa (1475-1519) was a Spanish conquistador and explorer who was the first European to see the eastern part of the Pacific Ocean (in 1513), crossing the Isthmus of Panama.
 * Monteith- ** Vasco Nunez de Balboa

In 1500, Balboa sailed with Rodrigo de Bastidas from Spain to Colombia, South America. They searched for treasures (pearls and gold) along the northern coast of South America and in the Gulf of Uraba (near San Sebastian). They were forced to abandon their leaky ship in Hispaniola. The penniless Balboa tried, unsuccessfully, to farm for a living.

In 1510, Balboa and his dog Leoncico stowed away on a boat going from Santo Domingo to San Sebastian. When they arrived at San Sebastian, they discovered that it had been burned to the ground. Balboa convinced the others to travel southwest with him to a spot he had seen on his earlier expedition. In 1511, Balboa founded a colony, the first European settlement in South America - the town of Santa Maria de la Antigua del Darien.

Balboa married the daughter of Careta, the local Indian chief. Soon after, in 1513, he sailed with hundreds of Spaniards and Indians across the Gulf of Uraba to the Darien Peninsula.

Balboa headed an overland expedition west through very dense rainforests. Along the way they fought many local Indians and destroyed one Indian village, killing hundreds of Indians. Balboa (accompanied by his dog) was the first European to see the eastern part of the Pacific Ocean (in September 1513, from a peak in Darién, Panama). Balboa and his men (including Francisco Pizarro) then traveled to the ocean and claimed it and all the land that touched it for Spain. They spent about a month conquering Natives along the Pacific coast and stealing their gold.

Balboa was charged with treason against Spain (although he was innocent and had been framed by a friend, Arias de Avila). Francisco Pizarro arrested Balboa. Balboa was found guilty and was publicly beheaded in Acla in January, 1519.

<span style="color: #8e6ee5; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Grand Prince of Moscow and "Grand Prince of all Rus". Sometimes referred to as the "gatherer of the Russian lands," he tripled the territory of his state, ended the dominance of the Golden Horde over the Rus, renovated the Moscow Kremlin, and laid the foundations of the Russian state. He was one of the longest-reigning Russian rulers in history.
 * Nguyen- ** Jacques Cartier (December 31, 1491 – September 1, 1557) was a French explorer of Breton origin who claimed what is now Canada for France. Jacques Cartier was the first European to describe and map the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the shores of the Saint Lawrence River, which he named "The Country of Canadas", after the Iroquois names for the two big settlements he saw at Stadacona (Quebec City) and at Hochelaga (Montreal Island)
 * Rajpurohit- **Henry Hudson
 * Rivers- **Pedro Alvares Cabral
 * Schaefer- **Ferdinand Magellan
 * Thomas- **John Cabot- **John Cabot- (1450-1499) John Cabot was an Italian navigator and explorer whose 1497 discovery of parts of North America under the commission of Henry VII of England is commonly held to have been the first European encounter with the mainland of North America since the Morse Viking. He was already a respected member of the community. Following his acquisition of full Venetian citizenship in 1476, he would have become eligible to engage in maritime trade (including trade o the eastern Mediterranean. He presumably became engage in this trade shortly after. He is mentioned selling a slave in Crete whom he had acquired while in the territories of the Sultan in Egypt. Cabot may have visited Mecca, which he said in 1497 to the Milanese ambassador in London.**
 * Ali- ** Rurik Dynasty: A monarchy emerged, and according to legend a man named Rurik, a native of Denmark became the first prince of what came to be called kievan rus. This principality though still loosely organized through alliances with regional, landed, aristocrats, flourished until the 12th century.The Rurikids were the ruling dynasty of Kievan Rus' (after 862), the successor principalities of Galicia-Volhynia (after 1199), Chernigov, Vladimir-Suzdal, and the Grand Duchy of Moscow, and the founders of the Tsardom of Russia. They are one of Europe's oldest royal houses, with numerous existing cadet branches.
 * Arellano- **Romanov Dynasty was the second and last imperial dynasty to rule over Russia, reigning from 1613 until the 1917 overthrow of the monarchy during the February Revolution. The Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, who was himself a member of a cadet branch of the Oldenburgs, married into the Romanov family early in the 18th century; all Romanov Tsars from the middle of that century to the revolution of 1917 were descended from that marriage. Romanovs acquired their name from Roman Yurev (d. 1543), whose daughter Anastasiya Romanovna Zakharina-Yureva was the first wife of Ivan IV the Terrible (reigned as tsar 1547–84). Her brother Nikita’s children took the surname Romanov in honor of their grandfather, father of a tsarina. The Tsars: Alexis (reigned 1645–76) succeeded his father, Michael (reigned 1613–45), and Fyodor III (reigned 1676–82) succeeded his father, Alexis. But after Fyodor’s death, both his brother Ivan and his half-brother Peter vied for the throne. Although a //zemsky sobor// chose Peter as the new tsar, Ivan’s family, supported by the //streltsy,// staged a palace revolution; and Ivan V and Peter I jointly assumed the throne (1682).
 * Baylee- **Ivan IV(the Terrible)
 * Melana- **Ivan III (the Great) --

<span style="color: #8e6ee5; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">__Gathering of the Russian Lands__ <span style="color: #8e6ee5; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">His first enterprise was a war with the Republic of Novgorod, which had fought a series of wars (stretching back to at least the reign of Dmitry Donskoi) for two reasons: over Moscow's religious and political sovereignty, and over Moscow's efforts to seize land in the Northern Dvina region.[3] Alarmed at Moscow's growing power, Novgorod had negotiated with Lithuania in the hope of placing itself under the protection of Casimir IV, King of Poland and Grand Prince of Lithuania, a would-be alliance regarded by Moscow as an act of apostasy from orthodoxy.[4] Ivan took the field against Novgorod in 1470, and after his generals had twice defeated the forces of the republic—at the Battle of Shelon River and on the Northern Dvina, both in the summer of 1471—the Novgorodians were forced to sue for peace, agreeing to abandon their overtures to Lithuania and ceding a considerable portion of their northern territories, and paying a war indemnity of 15,500 rouble. <span style="color: #8e6ee5; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Ivan visited Novgorod Central several times in the next several years, persecuting a number of pro-Lithuanian boyars and confiscating their lands. In 1477, two Novgorodian envoys, claiming to have been sent by the archbishops and the entire city, addressed Ivan in public audience as Gosudar (sovereign) instead of the usual Gospodin (sir).[5] Ivan at once seized upon this as a recognition of his sovereignty, and when the Novgorodians repudiated the envoys (indeed, one was killed at the veche and several others of the pro-Moscow faction were killed with him) and swore openly in front of the Moscow ambassadors that they would turn to Lithuania again, he marched against them. Deserted by Casimir IV and surrounded on every side by the Moscow armies, which occupied the major monasteries around the city, Novgorod ultimately recognized Ivan's direct rule over the city and its vast hinterland in a document signed and sealed by Archbishop Feofil of Novgorod (1470–1480) on 15 January 1478. Ivan dispossessed Novgorod of over four-fifths of its land, keeping half for himself and giving the other half to his allies. Subsequent revolts (1479–1488) were punished by the removal en masse of the richest and most ancient families of Novgorod to Moscow, Vyatka, and other central Russian cities. Archbishop Feofil, too, was removed to Moscow for plotting against the Grand Prince. The rival republic of Pskov owed the continuance of its own political existence to the readiness with which it assisted Ivan against its ancient enemy. The other principalities were eventually absorbed, be it by conquest, purchase or marriage contract: The Yaroslavl in 1463, Rostov was bought in 1474, Tver in 1485, and Vyatka 1489.Ivan's refusal to share his conquests with his brothers, and his subsequent interference with the internal politics of their inherited principalities, involved him in several wars with them, from which, though the princes were assisted by Lithuania, he emerged victorious. Finally, Ivan's new rule of government, formally set forth in his last will to the effect that the domains of all his kinsfolk, after their deaths, should pass directly to the reigning Grand Duke instead of reverting, as hitherto, to the princes' heirs, put an end once and for all to these semi-independent princelings. <span style="color: #8e6ee5; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Ivan had four brothers.The eldest, Iurii, died childless on 12 September 1472. He only had a draft of a will which said nothing about his land. Ivan seized the land, much to the surviving brothers' fury. He placated them with some land. Boris and Andrei the Elder signed treaties with Basil in February and September 1473. They agreed to protect each other's land and not have secret dealings with foreign states. They broke this clause in 1480, fleeing to Lithuania. It is unknown if Andrei the Younger signed a treaty. He died in 1481, leaving his lands to Ivan. In 1491 Andrei the Elder was arrested by Ivan for refusing to aid the Crimean Tatars against the Golden Horde. He died in prison in 1493, and Ivan seized his land. In 1494 Boris, the only brother able to pass his land to his sons, died. However, their land reverted to the Tsar upon their deaths in 1503 and 1515 respectively. <span style="color: #8e6ee5; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">There was one semi-autonomous prince in Muscovy when Ivan acceded: Prince Mikhail Andreevich of Vereia, who had been awarded an Appanage by Basil II. In 1478 he was pressured into giving Belozersk to Ivan, who got all of Mikhail's land on his death in 1486.

<span style="color: #8e6ee5; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">__Foreign Policy__ It was in the reign of Ivan III that Muscovy rejected the Tatar yoke. In 1476 Ivan refused to pay the customary tribute to the grand Khan Ahmed. All through the autumn the Muscovy and Tatar hosts confronted each other on opposite sides of the Ugra, till the 11th of November 1480, when Ahmed retired into the steppe. In the following year the Grand Khan, while preparing a second expedition against Moscow, was suddenly attacked, routed and slain by Ivak, the Khan of the Nogay Horde, whereupon the Golden Horde suddenly fell to pieces. In 1487 Ivan reduced the khanate of Kazan, one of the offshoots of the Horde, to the condition of a vassal-state, though in his later years it broke away from his suzerainty. With the other Muslim powers, the Khan of the Crimean Khanate and the sultans of Ottoman Empire, Ivan's relations were peaceful and even amicable. The Crimean Khan, Meñli I Giray, helped him against the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and facilitated the opening of diplomatic relations between Moscow and Istanbul, where the first Muscovian embassy appeared in 1495. It was during Ivan’s reign that the Christian rulers in the Caucasus began to see the Russian monarchs as their natural allies against the Muslim regional powers. The first attempt at forging an alliance was made by Alexander I, king of a small Georgian kingdom of Kakheti, who dispatched two embassies, in 1483 and 1491, to Moscow. However, as the Russians were still too far from the Caucasus, neither of these missions had any effect on the course of events in the region. From Matthias Corvinus of Hungary, gun-founders, gold- and silversmiths and (Italian) master builders were requested by Ivan.[11] In Nordic affairs, Ivan III concluded an offensive alliance with Hans of Denmark and maintained regular correspondence with Emperor Maximilian I, whom called him a "brother". He built a strong citadel in Ingria named Ivangorod after himself, situated on the Russian-Estonian border, opposite the fortress of Narva held by the Livonian Confederation. In the Russo-Swedish War (1495–1497) Ivan III unsuccessfully attempted to conquer Viborg from Sweden but this attempt was checked by the Swedish garrison in Viborg Castle led by Lord Knut Posse. The further extension of the Moscow dominion was facilitated by the death of Casimir IV in 1492, when Poland and Lithuania once again parted company. The throne of Lithuania was now occupied by Casimir's son Alexander, a weak and lethargic prince so incapable of defending his possessions against the persistent attacks of the Russians that he attempted to save them by a matrimonial compact, and wedded Helena, Ivan's daughter. But the clear determination of Ivan to appropriate as much of Lithuania as possible, finally compelled Alexander to take up arms against his father-in-law in 1499. The Lithuanians were routed at Vedrosha (14 July 1500), and in 1503 Alexander was glad to purchase peace by ceding to Ivan Chernigov, Starodub, Novgorod-Seversky and sixteen other towns.


 * Barner- **Michael Romanov:** Michael Romanov, or Michael I of Russia, was the first Russian Tsar and the founder of the Romanov Dynasty, which lasted from around 1613 to the early 20th century. He was also related to the last Tsar of the Rurik Dynasty. As a young child, Michael and his mother were both exiled to Beloozero in 1600. In 1613, Michael was unanimously elected to be the Tsar of Russia. His mother strongly urged him against becoming the Tsar because he was such a young age and that it would be too much for him to handle, but after much persuasion by those assigned to come and get him, he accepted. He had been chosen after several other options had been removed, including royalty of Poland and Sweden. His first duty as Tsar was to clear the land they wanted/needed of the countries occupying it. They cleared out both Sweden and Poland peacefully, with the peace of Stolbovo and the Truce of Deulino. What was significant about the Treaty of Deulino was that it allowed the return of Michael's exiled father, who ruled the government until his death in 1633. For the later portion of his life, Michael was unable to walk because of a leg injury, the consequence of a horse riding accident. This, along with other factors, such as not being able to successfully wed his daughter and going through two wives, caused him an early death at the age of 49 in 1645. **

A boyar was a member of the highest rank of the feudal Bulgarian, Moscovian, Kievan Rus'ian, Wallachian, and Moldavian aristocracies, second only to the ruling princes (in Bulgaria, tsars), from the 10th century to the 17th century. The rank has lived on as a surname in Russia and Romania, and also in Finland, where it is spelt Pajari. Son of a [|Mordovian] [|peasant] farmer named Mina, he was born on 7 May 1605 in the village of Valmanovo, 90 [|versts] (96 km or 60 miles) from [|Nizhny Novgorod]. Misery pursued the child from his cradle, and prematurely hardened a character not naturally soft; he ran away from home to save his life from an inhumane stepmother. But he gave promise betimes of the energy and thoroughness which were to distinguish him throughout life, and contrived to teach himself reading and writing. When he was but twenty his learning and talents obtained for him a [|cure of souls]. His eloquence attracted attention, and, through the efforts of some [|Moscow] merchants, he was transferred to a populous parish in the capital. Shortly afterwards, seeing in the loss of his three little children a providential warning to seek the higher life, he first persuaded his wife to take the veil and then withdrew himself first to a desolate hermitage on the [|isle of Anzersky] on the [|White Sea]. Having quarreled with the father superior, he attempted to flee southward, but a tempest broke out and his boat was cast ashore on [|Kiy Island], where he would later establish a great monastery. He eventually reached the Kozhezersky monastery, in the diocese of [|Novgorod], of which he became abbot in 1643. On becoming a monk he took the name of Nikon. In his official capacity he had frequently to visit Moscow, and in 1646 made the acquaintance of the pious and impressionable Tsar [|Alexei I], who fell entirely under his influence. Alexius appointed Nikon archimandrite, or prior, of the wealthy [|Novospassky monastery] at Moscow, and in 1648 [|metropolitan] of [|Great Novgorod]. Finally (1 August 1652) he was elected [|patriarch of Moscow]. It was only with the utmost difficulty that Nikon could be persuaded to become the arch-pastor of the Russian Church, and he only yielded after imposing upon the whole assembly a solemn oath of obedience to him in everything concerning the dogmas, canons and observances of the Orthodox Church. Russian Emperor Peter III ruled for only six months: From December 25, 1761, to June 28, 1762. He was groomed for the throne of Sweden, but was destined to become the Russian Emperor. Peter often told his contemporaries that he didn’t feel he was Russian. He realized that the Russian people would never understand and accept him, and he was sure that he would die in Russia. which eventually came true. He was born in Kiel Germany on Februrary 21, 1728 and died in July 17, 1762.
 * Bassett- **Alexis -
 * Bates- **Cossacks- East Slavic people who live in Southern Russia and Ukraine. They emerged sometime in the 14th or 15th century and they play an important role in the cultural development of Russia and Ukraine. They live in the sparsely populated river basins and islands, because Ivan III gave it to them. They played a very important role in Russia's military, they helped with conquest and colonization, they occupied the buffer zones on Russia's borders, and by the end of the 18th century they were a military class. The Cossacks were very good horsemen with guns, so they were very effective.
 * Boboy- **Catherine the Great- Catherine II also known as Catherine the Great was a German-born Russian tsarina in the 18th century; ruled after the assassination of her husband Peter III(the Great);gave appearance of enlightened rule;accepted Western cultural influence;maintained nobility as service aristocracy by granting them new power over peasantry.Catherine reformed the administration of Russian guberniyas, and many new cities and towns were founded on her orders. An admirer of Peter the Great, Catherine continued to modernise Russia along Western European lines. However, military conscription and economy continued to depend on serfdom, and the increasing demands of the state and private landowners led to increased levels of reliance on serfs. This was one of the chief reasons behind several rebellions, including the large-scale Pugachev's Rebellion of cossacks and peasants.The period of Catherine the Great's rule, the Catherinian Era, is often considered the Golden Age of the Russian Empire and the Russian nobility. The Manifesto on Freedom of the Nobility, issued during the short reign of Peter III and confirmed by Catherine, freed Russian nobles from compulsory military or state service. Construction of many mansions of the nobility, in the classical style endorsed by the Empress, changed the face of the country. A notable example of enlightened despot, a correspondent of Voltaire and an amateur opera librettist, Catherine presided over the age of the Russian Enlightenment, when the Smolny Institute, the first state-financed higher education institution for women in Europe, was established.
 * Boyer- **Boyars-
 * Caliman- **Nikon-
 * Elbushra- **Peter III-


 * Eubank- ** Pugachev- lyan Ivanovich Pugachev (Russian: Емелья́н Ива́нович Пугачёв) (c. 1742 – 21 January [O.S. January 10] 1775) was a pretender to the Russian throne who led a great Cossack insurrection during the reign of Catherine II. Alexander Pushkin wrote a notable history of the rebellion, The History of Pugachev, and he recounted some of the events in his novel The Captain's Daughter (1836).

Early life
Pugachev, the son of a small Don Cossack landowner, was the youngest son of four children. Born in the stanitsa Zimoveyskaya, he signed on to military service at the age of 17. One year later, he married a Cossack girl, Sofya Nedyuzheva, with whom he had a total of five children, two of whom died in infancy.[1] Shortly after his marriage, he joined the Russian Second Army in Prussia during the Seven Years' War under the command of Count Zakhar Chernyshov. He returned home in 1762, and for the next seven years would divide his time between his home village and several service assignments.[2] During this period, he was recognized for his military skill and achieved the Cossack rank of khorunzhiy, which would be roughly equivalent to the post of company commander. It was also during this period, in 1770 at the siege of Bender, that he first displayed a flair for impersonation, boasting to his fellow comrades that his sword was given to him by his "godfather", Peter I.

Life as a fugitive
In 1770, Pugachev requested leave to return home to recover from a severe illness, later seeking permanent discharge. Despite urging from military commanders, Pugachev refused to be treated in a military infirmary or return to the front. Convinced by his brother-in-law, Simon Pavlov, he joined a dissatisfied Cossack group who were fleeing eastward for an independent Cossack community on the Terek River. After they were safely across the Don River, he returned home to Zimoveyskaya. The fleeing Cossacks were caught soon after by the authorities, and Pavlov implicated Pugachev in the desertion, causing his arrest. He was held for 48 hours before he managed to escape, beginning his fugitive career. Fleeing for the Cossack community on the Terek River, he arrived in early January 1772. During his six weeks in the area, he joined a protest group and was elected their official representative. On his way to St. Petersburg to make an official complaint, his fugitive status was discovered in Mozdok, and he was again arrested. He escaped on 13 February and returned home, only to be arrested once again. Dispatched to Cherkassk for investigation, he met Lukyan Ivanovich Khudiakov, whom he tricked into releasing him, after which he fled to Vetka, a Polish border settlement, with the help of many raskol'niki. He returned to Russia in the autumn of 1772 by pretending to be an Old Believer wishing to return home. He received a visa to settle in the Malykovka district (present day Vol'sk), where he most likely first heard of the Yaik Cossacks rebellion.

Insurrection 1773–1774
The idea of impersonating the late Emperor Peter III occurred to Pugachev early on, even before he reached the Yaik Cossacks. It is of no surprise, given another recent peasant impersonator, Fedot Bogmolov, and Russia's history of impersonators. Pugachev, posing as a wealthy merchant, reportedly tested the feelings of the Cossacks at the Yaitsk by suggesting that he lead a mass exodus into Turkey. When the majority seemed to agree to his plan, he deemed it the right time to begin his rebellion. Though he was arrested shortly after once again, and this time held for five months at Kazan, he escaped once more and returned to the Yaitsk to start his revolt. By promising to return several privileges to the Cossacks and to restore the Old Belief, he was able to gain the support he needed to promote his identity as Peter III. The story of Pugachev's strong resemblance to the tsar Peter III, who in 1762 was overthrown and murdered by his wife, the future empress Catherine II, comes from a later legend. Pugachev told the story that he and his principal adherents had escaped from the clutches of Catherine. Having amassed an army through propaganda, recruitment and promise of reform, Pugachev and his generals were able to overrun much of the region stretching between the Volga River and the Urals. Pugachev's greatest victory of the insurgency was the taking of Kazan. As well as amassing large numbers of Cossacks and peasants, Pugachev also acquired artillery and arms and was able to supply his force better than the Russian army would have predicted. Pugachev Administering Justice to the Population. Painting by Vasily Perov. In response, General Peter Panin set out against the rebels with a large army, but difficulty of transport, lack of discipline, and the gross insubordination of his ill-paid soldiers paralyzed all his efforts for months, while Pugachev's innumerable and ubiquitous bands gained victories in nearly every engagement. Not until August 1774 did General Michelsohn inflict a crushing defeat upon the rebels near Tsaritsyn, when they lost ten thousand killed or taken prisoner. Panin's savage reprisals, after the capture of Penza, completed their discomfiture. On 14 September 1774, Pugachev's own Cossacks delivered him to Yaitsk. Alexander Suvorov had him placed in a metal cage and sent first to Simbirsk and then to Moscow for a public execution, which took place on 21 January [O.S. 10 January] 1775. In Bolotnaya Square in the center of Moscow, he was decapitated and then drawn and quartered in public.

Legacy of Pugachev
The Pugachev rebellion had a long lasting effect on Russia for years to come. While Catherine II tried to reform the provincial administration, the horrors of the revolt caused her to drop other reforms, particularly attempts to emancipate the peasant serfs of Russia. The Russian writer Alexander Radishchev, in his Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow, attacked the Russian government, in particular the institution of serfdom. In the book, he refers to Pugachev and the rebellion as a warning. The term "Pugachevs of the University" was frequently used to describe the generation of the Russian Nihilist movement. The town in which Pugachev was born was later named in his honor by the Soviet government. The central square in the Kazakh town of Uralsk is named Pugachev Square. Catherine the Great read the work, viewed Radishchev's calls for reform as evidence of Jacobin-style radicalism, and ordered copies of the text confiscated and destroyed. Out of the 650 copies originally printed, only 17 survived to be reprinted in England fifty years later. In 1790, Radischev was arrested and condemned to death. He humbly begged forgiveness of Catherine, publicly disowning his book and his sentence was commuted to exile to Ilimsk in Siberia. En route, the writer was treated like a common convict, shackled at the ankles and forced to endure the Russian cold from which he eventually fell ill. His friend, Count Alexander Vorontzov, who held sway with Catherine, interceded and managed to secure Radischev more appropriate accommodations, allowing him to return to Moscow to recover and restart his journey with dignity and comfort.[4] Beginning in October, 1790, Radischev’s two-year trip through Siberia took him through Siberia, stopping the towns of Ekaterinberg, Tobolsk, and Irkutsk before reaching the small town of Ilimsk in 1792. Along the way, he began writing a biography of Yermak, the Cossack conqueror of Siberia, and pursuing an interest in geology and nature. Settling in Ilimsk for five years with his second wife, Elizabeth Vasilievna Rubanovsky, and his two children, Radischev, as the only educated man in the area, became the local doctor and saved several lives. He also wrote a long treatise, On Man, His Mortality, His Immortality, revered as one of the few great philosophical works of Russia.[5] In it, he addresses man’s belief in the afterlife, the corporality of the soul, and the faults of Materialism. Radishchev was freed by Catherine's successor Tsar Paul, and attempted again to push for reforms in Russia's government. Under the reign of Alexander I, Radishchev was briefly employed to help revise Russian law, a realization of his lifelong dream. Unfortunately, his tenure in this administrative body was short and unsuccessful. In 1802 a despondent Radishchev - possibly threatened with another Siberian exile - committed suicide by drinking poison. **Alexander I of Russia** ( [|Russian] : Александр I Павлович, Aleksandr I Pavlovich) (23 December [ [|O.S.] 12 December] 1777 – 1 December [ [|O.S.] 19 November] 1825), [|[1]] also known as **Alexander the Blessed** [|[2]][|[3]] ( [|Russian] : Александр Благословенный, Aleksandr Blagoslovennyi), served as [|Emperor] of Russia from 23 March 1801 to 1 December 1825 and the first Russian [|King of Poland] from 1815 to 1825. He was also the first Russian [|Grand Duke of Finland] and [|Lithuania]. He was born in [|Saint Petersburg] to [|Grand Duke] Paul Petrovich, later Emperor [|Paul I], and [|Maria Feodorovna] , daughter of [|The Duke of Württemberg]. Alexander was the eldest of four brothers. He succeeded to the throne after his father was murdered, and ruled Russia during the chaotic period of the [|Napoleonic Wars]. In the first half of his reign Alexander tried to introduce liberal reforms, while in the second half his conduct became much more arbitrary, which led to the revocation of many earlier reforms. In foreign policy Alexander gained some successes, mainly by his diplomatic skills and by winning several military campaigns. In particular, Russia acquired Finland and part of Poland under his rule. Alexander died without issue and was succeeded by his younger brother, [|Nicholas I]. Peter I was the co-czar (with his feeble brother) of Russia from 1682 until his death. He was big on autocracy. His older sister, Sofia, tried to kill him for power, so he put her under house arrest. He left the country (a very unusual and risky thing for a czar to do) and saw western Europe, and he wanted in on the prosperity, so he started a big westernization movement. When he returned, he saw that Sofia had convinced his secret police, the Streltsy, to rebel. So he killed them. He moved the capital to St. Petersburg. He put together all kinds of westernization projects, including improving the military and educating bureaucrats, as well systematizing law codes and taxes (you know, stuff China was doing 2000 years ago). He hated beards because they reminded him of the Mongols. He also brought western culture, such as ballet. The poor remained serfs, though. The Russian/Muscovite law code of 1649, formally known as the sobornoye ulozhenie (or Ulozhenie, the name of the code, which will be used in the article), was one of the great legal monuments of all time. Historically, in Russia, it is probably the second most important literary monument composed between 882 and at least 1800, outranked only by the various redactions of the Russian chronicle. Like some other major legal monuments in Russian history, the Law Code of 1649 was the product of civil disorder. Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich had come to the throne at age 16 in 1645. His former tutor, Boris Morozov, was ruling in his name. Morozov and his clique, at the pinnacle of corruption, aroused great popular discontent. A crowd formed in Moscow on June 2, 1648, and presented a petition to Tsar Alexei, whose accompanying bodyguards tore it up and flung it back into the faces of the petitioners, who, joined by others, then went on a looting and burning rampage. The rebellion soon spread to a dozen other Russian towns. Inter alia, the petitioners cited judicial abuses by the Morozov clique, mentioned that great rulers in Byzantium had compiled law codes, and demanded that Alexei follow suit. To calm the mob, Alexei agreed that a new law code should be compiled and on July 16 appointed one of the leading figures of the seventeenth century, Nikita Odoyevsky, to head a commission of five to compile it. Three of them were experienced bureaucrats who together had decades of experience working in the Moscow central governmental chancellery system (the prikazy). The Odoyevsky Commission set to work immediately, and the preamble to the Law Code explains how they worked. They asked the major chancelleries (about ten of the existing forty) for their statute books (ustavnye/ukaznye knigi), the decisions of the chancelleries on scrolls. The scrolls summarized the cases and contained the resolutions for each case. The Odoyevsky Commission selected the most important resolutions and tried to generalize them by removing the particulars of each case as well as put them in logical order (on the scrolls they were in chronological order). Depending on how frequently the resolutions had been used and how old they were, the fact that many of the Law Code's articles were summaries from the statute books is more or less apparent. When seeking precedents to resolve a case, the chancelleries frequently wrote to each other asking for guidance, with the result that similar resolutions sometimes can be found in several statute books. Fires during the Time of Troubles had destroyed most of the chancellery records; the chancelleries restored some of these by writing to the provinces requesting legal materials sent from Moscow before 1613. The same approach was used after a fire in 1626 again had destroyed many of the chancellery records. The chancelleries had other sources of precedents, some of which are mentioned in the Law Code itself (in the preamble and rather often in marginalia on the still-extant original scroll copy of the Law Code) and others that can be found by comparing the chancellery scrolls and other laws with the Law Code. Major sources were Byzantine law, which circulated in Russia in the Church Statute Book (the Kormchaya kniga, a Russian version of the Byzantine Nomocanon) and the Lithuanian Statute of 1588 (which had been translated from West Russian into Muscovite Middle Russian around 1630). In addition to the chancellery records, the Sudebnik (Court Handbook) of 1550 was a source for the chancelleries and for the 1649 monument. By October 3, 1648, the Odoyevsky Commission had prepared a preliminary draft of half of the new code. In response to the June riots, Tsar Alexei changed the personnel of his government and summoned an Assembly of the Land to consider the new law code. The Odoyevsky Commission draft was read to the delegates to the Assembly of the Land, who apparently voted up or down each article. In addition, the delegates brought their own demands, which were incorporated into the new code and comprised about eighty-three articles of all the 968 articles in the code. From 77 to 102 articles originated in Byzantium, 170 to 180 in the Lithuanian Statute of 1588. From 52 to 118 came from the Sudebnik of 1550, and 358 can be traced to post-1550 (primarily post-1613) practice. The code's 968 articles are grouped into twenty-five chapters. The Sudebniki of 1497, 1550, and 1589 had been arranged one article after another, but the Composite Sudebnik of 1606 was grouped into chapters (twenty-five of them), as was the Lithuanian Statute of 1588. The architecture of the code is also interesting, from "the highest, the sublime" (the church, religion: chapter 1; the tsar and his court: chapters 2 and 3) to "the lowest, the gross" (musketeers: chapter 23; cossacks: chapter 24; and illicit taverns: chapter 25). Although there are a handful of codification defects in the code, they are few in number and trivial. The entire document was considered by the Assembly of the Land and signed by most of the delegates on January 29,1649. Those who withheld their signatures were primarily churchmen who objected to the code's semi-secularization of the church (see below). Almost immediately the scroll copy was sent to the printer, and twelve hundred copies were manufactured between April and May 20. The Ulozhenie was the second lay book published in Muscovy. (The first was Smotritsky's Grammar, published in 1619.) The price was high (one ruble; the median daily wage was four kopeks), but the book sold out almost immediately, and another twelve hundred copies were printed, with some minor changes, between August 27 and December 21, 1649. They also sold out quickly. The Ulozhenie was subsequently reprinted eight times as an active law code, and it served as the starting point for the famous forty-five-volume Speransky codification of the laws in 1830. It has been republished eight times after 1830 because of its enormous historical interest. In 1663 it was translated into Latin and subsequently into French, German, Danish, and English. Commentators have marveled that the Odoyevsky Commission was able to produce such a remarkable monument at all, let alone in so short a time. Until 1830, other codification attempts were made, but they all failed. Certainly the success of the code can be attributed largely to the preparation on the part of the Odoyevsky Commission: They brought a nearly finished document to the Assembly of the Land for approval and amendment. In contrast, Catherine II's Legislative Commission of 1767 failed miserably because it had no draft to work from, but started instead from abstract principles and went nowhere. The speed of the Odoyevsky Commission is also easy to account for: Each chapter is based primarily on an extraction of the laws from a specific chancellery's statute book or demands made at the Assembly of the Land. The Odoyevsky Commission made no attempt to write law itself or to fill lacunae in existing legislation. The Law Code of 1649 is a fairly detailed record of its times, practices, and major concerns. Most noteworthy are the additions insisted on by the delegates to the Assembly of the Land, amendments which the government was too weak and frightened to oppose. Three areas are especially significant: the completion of the enserfment of the peasantry (chapter 11), the completion of the legal stratification of the townsmen (chapter 19), and the semi-secularization of the church (chapters 13, 14, and 19). While the peasants were enserfed primarily at the demands of others (the middle service class provincial cavalry), the townsmen were stratified into a caste at their own insistence. Urban stratification and enserfment proceeded in parallel from the early 1590s on, but the resolutions in the Ulozhenie were different. Serfs could be returned to any place of which there was record of their having lived in the past, but townsmen were enjoined to remain where they were in January 1649 and could be returned only if they moved after that time. Enserfment was motivated by provincial cavalry rent demands, while townsmen stratification was motivated by state demands for taxes, which were assessed collectively and were hard to collect when those registered in a census (taken most recently in 1646 - 1647) moved away. The townsmen got monopolies on trade and manufacturing, as well as on the ownership of urban property (this primarily dispossessed the church). Roughly the same rules applied to fugitive townsmen as fugitive serfs, especially when they married. If one thinks in terms of victimization, the primary "victim" of the Law Code of 1649 (after the serfs) was the Orthodox Church. As mentioned, much of its urban property was secularized. Its capacity to engage in trade and manufacturing was compromised. The state laid down provisions for protecting the church in chapter 1, but this in and of itself states which party is superior and limits the "harmony" (from the Byzantine Greek Epanogoge) of the two. Chapter 12 discusses the head of the church, the patriarch, thus obviously making him subordinate to the state. Worst of all for the church was chapter 13, which created the Monastery Chancellery, a state office which in theory ran all of the church except the patriarchate. This measure especially secularized much of the church, and though it was repealed on Alexei's death in 1676, it was revitalized with a vengeance by Peter the Great's creation of the Holy Synod in 1721, when all of the church became a department of the state. The Ulozhenie also forbade the church from acquiring additional landed property, the culmination of a process which had begun with the confiscation of all of Novgorod's church property after its annexation by Moscow in 1478. The Law Code of 1649 is a comprehensive document, the product of an activist, interventionist, maximalist state that believed it could control many aspects of Russian life and the economy (especially the primary factors, land and labor). Chapters 2 and 3 protected the tsar and regulated life at his court. The longest chapter, 10, is quite detailed on procedure. The major forms of landholding, service lands (pomestye) and hereditary estate lands, are discussed in chapters 16 and 17, respectively. Slavery is the subject of the code's second longest chapter, 20. Criminal law is covered in two chapters, 21 (mostly of Russian origin) and 22 (mostly of Lithuanian and Byzantine origin), which were combined in the 1669 Felony Statute and represented the peak of barbarous punishments in Russia. Other subjects covered are forgers and counterfeiters (chapters 4 and 5), travel abroad (typically forbidden, chapter 6), military service (chapter 7), the redemption of Russians from foreign military captivity (chapter 8), various travel fees (chapter 9) and seal fees (chapter 18), the oath (chapter 14), and the issue of reopening resolved cases (chapter 15). Codes as comprehensive and activist as this one did not appear in Austria, Prussia, or France until more than a century later.
 * Fackrell- **Alexander Radishchev- Was a Russian author and social critic who was arrested and exiled under Catherine the Great. He brought the tradition of radicalism in Russian literature to prominence with the publication in 1790 of his Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow. His depiction of socio-economic conditions in Russia earned him exile to Siberia until 1797.
 * Gilbert- **Alexander I-
 * Harper- **Peter I (the Great)
 * Heald- **Law Code of 1649

=**__ Review Questions: __**= [] The Treaty of Tordesillas (Portuguese: Tratado de Tordesilhas, signed at Tordesillas (now in Valladolid province,Spain) on 7 June 1494 and authenticated at Setúbal, Portugal, divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between Portugal and Spain along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands (off the west coast of Africa). This line of demarcation was about halfway between the Cape Verde Islands (already Portuguese) and the islands entered by Christopher Columbus on his first voyage (claimed for Spain), named in the treaty as Cipangu and Antilia (Cuba and Hispaniola). The lands to the east would belong to Portugal and the lands to the west to Spain. The treaty was ratified by Spain (at the time, the Crowns of Castile and Aragon), 2 July 1494 and by Portugal,5 September 1494. The other side of the world would be divided a few decades later by the Treaty of Zaragoza or Saragossa, signed on 22 April 1529, which specified the antimeridian to the line of demarcation specified in the Treaty of Tordesillas. Originals of both treaties are kept at the Archivo General de Indias in Spain and at the Arquivo Nacional da Torre do Tombo in Portugal. The nation state is a certain form of state that has a territorium where mainly one nation lives. The state is a political entity; the nation is a cultural and/or ethnic entity. The term "nation-state" means that the two are on the same territorium, and this distinguishes the nation state from the other types of state, which existed before....to be continued when I find an answer to the second half of the question (: I don't know if this is correct but in one of the class discussions Mr.Wooley mentioned five nation-states:Portugal, Spain, England, France, and Holland...and I believe that these were some of the first nation-states. The spanish inquisition was still going on in 1492. The expulsion of jews out of Spain. The Jews were forced to convert to another religion. While some fled to other countries like turkey. Also in 1492 King Henry the 7th of England invaded France. He desired an alliance with Spain and to defend his daughter Brittany.  After the duchess Anne had married Charles VIII. of France, he felt bound to fulfil his obligations to Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, and also to the German king Maximilian, by an invasion of France in 1492. His allies fell through on there obligations and after some time he made peace with the french king. The Nations of western Europe were the driving force behind the global trade network. They were crucial to the columbian exchange, and the Atlantic and pacific Trade routes. Spain and Portugal were the initial countries to set up vital trading ports in Africa, India, China, the new world, and in the beginning japan. The core nations also dominated the seas which led to new international pool for basic exchange of foods, diseases, and a few manufactured goods.Their maritime dominance also led to a new world economy. If Europe had not become dominate They would not have discover the new world and an a increase in gold and silver from the "indians", and possibly Trade would have stayed national. Christianity played a big role in the Columbian exchange because Christians were looking to spread there religion throughout the world. And since the discovery of the new world and the discovery of these new people they were able to force these people into becoming Christians. They were able to spread throughout the carribean fairly easy but as soon as they got to Mesoamerica they got resistance from the local tribes because of their religious ways. Within Renaissance literature, there seems to be an underlying theme of justice; however, individual characters are not exemplary figures of justice themselves. Aristotle, a Greek philosopher, believed that instead of seeking personal revenge, true justice could only be obtained through a body of jurors who were willing and capable of distributing justice to individuals. Thus the characters in Renaissance literature typically defy Aristotelian views of virtue by having little respect for others. The Great Chain of Being was a popularly held idea during the Renaissance period. The “chain” consists of four categories: angels are at the top humans second beasts and plants next and inanimate objects last. According to this theory, more matter equals less spirit and vice versa. Therefore, as angels are created of the least amount of matter, they possess the most spirit. Beasts and inanimate objects possess little spirit because they have so much matter. Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press which enabled the West the opportunity to advance in many things. For example, the West was now able to write literature more efficiently which also means more people were introduced to literature. This increased the amount of literacy in the West but also, in some ways, spread religion. The Bible and other religious books were able to be translated, copied, and distributed which made more people aware of it. It played a key role in the development of the [|Renaissance], [|Reformation] , the [|Age of Enlightenment] , and the [|Scientific Revolution] and laid the material basis for the modern [|knowledge-based economy] and the [|spread of learning to the masses]. <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #222222; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: small;">Humanism was an outlook or system of thought attaching prime importance to human rather than divine or supernatural matters. Humanist beliefs stress the potential value and goodness of human beings, emphasize common human needs, and seek solely rational ways of solving human problems. Humanism played a extremely large role in the renaissance. People began to question what the Roman Catholic church had been telling them (Do I actually need to pay to go to heaven?). People realized that they could pray and find forgiveness on their own, so they separated from the church and became protestants. Church and state became more separate as people lost interest in the church. People started reading the Bible themselves, instead of depending on the church to interpret it for them. Leviathan or The Matter, Forme and Power of a Common Wealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil — commonly referred to as Leviathan — is a book written by Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) and published in 1651. Its name derives from the biblical Leviathan. The work concerns the structure of society and legitimate government, and is regarded as one of the earliest and most influential examples of social contract theory. Leviathan ranks as a classic western work on statecraft comparable to Machiavelli's The Prince. Written during the English Civil War (1642–1651), Leviathan argues for a social contractand rule by an absolute sovereign. Hobbes wrote that civil war and the brute situation of a state of nature ("the war of all against all") could only be avoided by strong undivided government. After lengthy discussion with Hobbes, the Parisian Abraham Bosse created the etching for the book's famous frontispiece in the géometrique style which Bosse himself had refined. It is similar in organisation to the frontispiece of Hobbes' De Cive(1642), created by Jean Matheus. The frontispiece has two main elements, of which the upper part is by far the more striking. In it, a giant crowned figure is seen emerging from the landscape, clutching a sword and a crosier, beneath a quote from the Book of Job—"Non est potestas Super Terram quae Comparetur ei. Iob. 41 . 24" ("There is no power on earth to be compared to him. Job 41 . 24")—linking the figure to the monster of that book. (Because of disagreement over where chapters begin, the verse Hobbes quotes is usually given as Job 41:33 in modern Christian translations into English, Job 41:25 in the Masoretic text, Septuagint, and the Luther Bible; it is 41:24 in the Vulgate.) The torso and arms of the figure are composed of over three hundred persons, in the style of Giuseppe Arcimboldo; all are facing inwards with just the giant's head having visible features. (A manuscript of Leviathan created for Charles II in 1651 has notable differences – a different main head but significantly the body is also composed of many faces, all looking outwards from the body and with a range of expressions.) The lower portion is a triptych, framed in a wooden border. The centre form contains the title on an ornate curtain. The two sides reflect the sword and crosier of the main figure – earthly power on the left and the powers of the church on the right. Each side element reflects the equivalent power – castle to church, crown to mitre, cannon to excommunication, weapons to logic, and the battlefield to the religious courts. The giant holds the symbols of both sides, reflecting the union of secular and spiritual in the sovereign, but the construction of the torso also makes the figure the state. The Two Treatises of Government is a work of political philosophy published anonymously in 1689 by John Locke. The First Treatise attacks patriarchalism in the form of sentence-by-sentence refutation of Robert Filmer's Patriarcha, while the Second Treatise outlines Locke's ideas for a more civilised society based on natural rights and contract theory.
 * Hunt- **Why did Western European nations begin sailing expeditions during the fifteenth century? Western countries began sailing to expand trade routes and increase money flow. Several new items began to be introduced into the European market through these trades; also, trade routes were either strengthened or new ones were created.
 * Jenkins- **Who were the principle explorers that sailed the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries?
 * Johnson- **What technological developments were introduced to the West during the Fifteenth century?
 * Jones- **What was accomplished by the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)?
 * Juell- **Examine and explain of both the Spanish and the Portuguese claims to territory in the New World.
 * Kirchoff- **What’s a nation state? What were the earliest nation states?
 * Looney- **What is the significance of 1492 - aside from Columbus voyage?
 * Martinez- **Why did the leadership of exploration pass from Spain and Portugal to the nations of northern Europe like France, Holland, and England?
 * Measom- **What impact did the nations of Western Europe have on the global trade network from 1450 to 1750?
 * Monteith- **Identify and differentiate the various regions of the globe that were dominated and controlled by the nations of Western Europe.
 * Nguyen- **What was the commercial revolution? The Commercial Revolution was a period of European economic expansion, colonialism, and mercantilism which lasted from approximately the 13th century until the early 18th century. It was succeeded in the mid-18th century by the Industrial Revolution. Beginning with the Crusades, Europeans rediscovered spices, silks, and other commodities rare in Europe. This development created a new desire for trade, and trade expanded in the second half of the Middle Ages. European nations, through voyages of discovery, were looking for new trade routes in the 15th and 16th centuries, which allowed the European powers to build vast, new international trade networks. Nations also sought new sources of wealth. To deal with this new-found wealth, new economic theories and practices were created. Because of competing national interest, nations had the desire for increased world power through their colonial empires. The Commercial Revolution is marked by an increase in general commerce, and in the growth of financial services such as banking, insurance, and investing.
 * Rajpurohit- **What is a joint-stock company, and how did it influence European colonization?
 * Rivers- **What were the causes and effects of the English Civil War (1645–1649)?
 * Schaefer- **How did the Dutch and British exploration and trade ventures differ from those of the Spanish and Portuguese?-The Spanish and the Portuguese sailed directly to the Americas and unintentionally rediscovered it while the British and the Dutch were busy in the East Indies due to the spice trade and didn't sail to the Americas until after they learned the Spanish and Portuguese had discovered the vast amounts of gold and such in the Americas
 * Thomas- **How does Wooley’s Axiom #1 apply to post-Columbian Europe?- **Wooley's Axiom #1 applies to post-Columbian Europe, because explorers returned to Europe with returned with maize, potatoes, and tomatoes which became very important crops by the 18th century. It took 3 centuries after their introduction for tomatoes to be accepted in Europe, because physicians in the 16th century believed that the native Mexican fruit was poisonous and the [[image:http://solidsaving-a.akamaihd.net/items/it/img/arrow-10x10.png height="10"]] of "melancholic humors." Finally, in 1544, another physician suggested that tomatoes might be edible. When Many other types of foods were brought into Europe which gave them easier ways to farm and produce food. this food growth allowed the population to grow in Europe, which is what Wooley's Axiom #1 mentions.**
 * Ali- **What is the significance of the Battle of Lepanto (1571)? In the eastern Mediterranean, for example a Spanish directed fleet defeated the navy of the ottoman empire in the battle of Lepanto 1571. With this setback any hope of successful muslim rivalry against European naval power ended, The turks rebuilt their fleet and continued their activity in the eastern Mediterranean, but they could not challenge the Europeans on the larger international routes.
 * Arellano- **What is mercantilism and how was the philosophy applied by the nations of Western Europe?
 * Mercantilism is an economic doctrine based on the theory that a nation benefits by accumulating monetary reserves through a positive balance of trade, especially of finished** **goods. Little import was done with an ample amount of export. Mercantilism dominated Western European economic policy and discourse from the 16th to late-18th centuries. Mercantilism was a cause of frequent European wars in that time and motivated colonial expansion (for the need of more or new raw material and precious metals). The countries that applied it, had a growing economy. To enforce mercantilism England passed the NAVIGATION ACTS, (Trade Acts) beginning in 1651. These acts were designed to control trade with its colonies. These laws forced the colonies to trade only with England. other precautions were taken by other countries similar. Mercantilism was just another way to gain more power.**
 * Baylee- **What was the economic impact of the Columbian Exchange on the various nations of Western Europe?
 * Melana- **What was the impact of the Columbian Exchange on China and Japan?
 * Barner- **What goods were exchanged between the Far East and the rest of the world?: ** True to China and Japan being who they are, they didn't trade much and really just isolated themselves from the rest of the world. For China, the remained isolated like usual, and as a result, their technology was a step behind everyone else's(The West). Although, with all this isolation, you would think that their economy would be in the toilet pretty quick. It would have been, if not for Spain pouring in tons of money, which they had from the "trade" they were doing in Africa and Latin America, on things like fine "china". Mainly, China did what they do today and was a major exporting nation, but didn't really import much, staying true to mercantilism. As for Japan, they really didn't trade for as much as China did. Japan was really interested in Western advances in gunnery and shipping(boats), so that's what they mainly traded for. Japan didn't want much to do with the West because it was in fear that its way of life would be in jeopardy if it let foreigners enter, trade, and leave Japan whenever they pleased. Plus, the introduction of guns would allow others to question the authority of the samurai military dominance, since a sword wouldn't hold up that well against a pistol or a cannon. **
 * Bassett- **What role did Christianity play in the Columbian Exchange? Where did Christians find success spreading the Gospel, and where did they meet with resistance?
 * Bates- **What was the impact of European expansion on India? When the Europeans expanded to India and the Indian Ocean they took over the Indian Ocean trade, and different European countries dominated it at different times. The Portuguese had colonies on India's South-West coast, and India was introduced to the ideas of the Enlightenment, and the Renaissance by the European colonists. The trade that happened in The Indian Ocean helped start global trade, with India as the center trade location. The Dutch East India Company made their base in India, and their base was a heavily fortified fort. Westernization came to India through the Europeans as well. The English and French also came to India, and involved its people in the Seven Years war. The English and French bribed Indian princes to help them in the war, so the princes fought each other. At the end of the war the British had won and they established the British East India Company which was a major political force in India at that time. European inheritance in Europe would help educate Indians and would lead to Gandhi becoming educated and helping win back his countries independence.
 * Boboy- **How was the Caribbean and South America affected by European expansion during this time period?- As the sponsor of the discovery voyage, Spain was the first European power to settle the Americas and colonize the largest areas, from North America and the Caribbean to the southern tip of South America. Spanish cities were founded as early as 1496 with Santo Domingo in today's Dominican Republic or San Juan, Puerto Rico in 1508 or Veracruz (Mexico) and Panama City in 1519. The city of St. Augustine, Florida founded by Spain in 1565 is the oldest continuously inhabited European city in present-day United States.Other powers such as France also founded colonies in the Americas: in eastern North America, a number of Caribbean islands, and small coastal parts of South America. Portugal colonized Brazil. This was the beginning of a dramatic territorial expansion for several European countries. Europe had been preoccupied with internal wars, and was only slowly recovering from the loss of population caused by the bubonic plague; thus the rapid rate at which it grew in wealth and power was unforeseeable in the early 1400s.Eventually, the entire Western Hemisphere came under the control of European governments, leading to profound changes to its landscape, population, and plant and animal life. In the 19th century alone over 50 million people left Europe for the Americas. The post-1492 era is known as the period of the Columbian Exchange, a dramatically widespread exchange of animals, plants, culture, human populations (including slaves), communicable disease, and ideas between the American and Afro-Eurasian hemispheres following Columbus's voyages to the Americas.The Spanish followed with the enslavement of local aborigines in the Caribbean. As the native populations declined (mostly from European diseases, but also and significantly from forced exploitation and careless murder), they were often replaced by Africans imported through a large commercial slave trade.The great majority of europeans went to sugar colonies in the Caribbean and to Brazil, where life expectancy was short and the numbers had to be continually replenished.Basically people were enslaved and forced to mine silver and gold, got diseases, died, and got killed in the Caribbean and South America because of European expansion.
 * Boyer- **Identify and differentiate the various contributions of the Renaissance authors. In other words, what did they write, and what was it about.
 * Caliman- **What impact did Johannes Gutenberg have on the West?
 * Elbushra- **What is humanism? Who were the leading proponents of humanism?
 * Eubank- **What was the Catholic Church’s response to various aspects of the Renaissance – i.e. artistic, political, intellectual, scientific…?
 * Fackrell- **What was the scientific Revolution? What was its impact on the West?
 * Gilbert- **What factors led to the Protestant Reformation? How did the Catholic Church respond to this movement? King Henry the eighth had to reform because the Pope denied his divorce request from the heir to Isabella and Ferdanand, so he took matters in his own hands and made is own religion and declared his marriage null and void. The Catholics were upset and angry and damned the people to hell, even in their corruption.
 * Harper- **What impact did Martin Luther’s 95 Theses have on both the Church and Secular Europe?
 * Heald- **How did the political leadership of Europe react to
 * Hunt- **How does the Northern Renaissance differ from the Southern version?
 * Jenkins- **What is the significance of the Thirty Years War?
 * Johnson- **What is the significance of the Edict of Nantes and the Treaty of Westphalia (hint: they have nothing specifically to do with each other, but you ought to know what they accomplish)? **Edict of Nantes:** It effectively ended the French Wars of Religion, and brought France much-needed stability, allowing it's economy to expand and its influence on the continent to grow. It showed that a major European nation could thrive while upholding the ideals of religious tolerance. The edict only lasted 89 years, however, when Louis XIV repealed it. **Treaty of Westphalia:** The treaty is considered the beginning of the international system of laws. The concept of sovereignty which included territorial integrity, non intervention, and political self determination was recognized. The German kingdoms, the Netherlands and Switzerland were recognized as sovereign states. Kingdoms were given the right to determine their own official religions, and citizens who did not practice the official religion were given the freedom of religion with some restrictions
 * Jones- <span style="color: #ee1212; font-family: Georgia,serif;">What are the religious and political developments that occur in England between 1500 and 1700? By 1500, books became a huge religious significance for western society. In 1517, views began to change when Martin Luther branches off the Catholic church. This lead tension for calvinist and catholic. This lead to a war, but the edict of Nantes in 1598 ended the war. Politically, Renaissanse decline in italy 1500. Because of French and Spanish invasions, it caused reduced politcal economy. Many more monarchs and kings increased ceremonies in 16th century. It was constant growing bureacracy and the west was always at war because of the Nation- States. **
 * Juell- **How does the English Civil War impact the West (and particularly the development of the United States)?
 * Kirchoff- **Why are Hobbes’ //Leviathan// and Locke’s //Two Treatises on Civil Government// considered to be significant developments in political theory?

Two Treatises was first published, anonymously, in December 1689 (following printing conventions of the time, its title page was marked 1690). Locke was unhappy with this edition, complaining to the publisher about its many errors. For the rest of his life, he was intent on republishing the Two Treatises in a form that better reflected his meaning. Peter Laslett, one of the foremost Locke scholars, has suggested that Locke held the printers to a higher "standard of perfection" than the technology of the time would permit. Be that as it may, the first edition was indeed replete with errors. The second edition was even worse, and finally printed on cheap paper and sold to the poor. The third edition was much improved, but Locke was still not satisfied. He made corrections to the third edition by hand and entrusted the publication of the fourth to his friends, as he died before it could be brought out.

The Two Treatises begin with a Preface announcing what Locke hopes to achieve, but he also mentions that more than half of his original draft, occupying a space between the First and Second Treatises, has been irretrievably lost. Peter Laslett maintains that, while Locke may have added or altered some portions in 1689, he did not make any revisions to accommodate for the missing section; he argues, for example, that the end of the First Treatise breaks off in mid-sentence.

In 1691 Two Treatises was translated into French by David Mazzel, a French Huguenot living in the Netherlands. This translation left out Locke's "Preface," all of the First Treatise, and the first chapter of the Second Treatise (which summarised Locke's conclusions in the First Treatise). It was in this form that Locke's work was reprinted during the 18th century in France and in this form that Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau were exposed to it. The only American edition from the 18th century was printed in 1773 in Boston; it, too, left out all of these sections. There were no other American editions until the 20th century.

Two Treatises is divided into the First Treatise and the Second Treatise. The original title of the Second Treatise appears to have been simply "Book II," corresponding to the title of the First Treatise, "Book I." Before publication, however, Locke gave it greater prominence by (hastily) inserting a separate title page: "An Essay Concerning the True Original, Extent and End of Civil Government." The First Treatise is focused on the refutation of Sir Robert Filmer, in particular his Patriarcha, which argued that civil society was founded on a divinely sanctioned patriarchalism. Locke proceeds through Filmer's arguments, contesting his proofs from Scripture and ridiculing them as senseless, until concluding that no government can be justified by an appeal to the divine right of kings.

The Second Treatise outlines a theory of civil society. John Locke begins by describing the state of nature, a picture much more stable than Thomas Hobbes' state of "war of every man against every man," and argues that all men are created equal in the state of nature by God. From this, he goes on to explain the hypothetical rise of property and civilisation, in the process explaining that the only legitimate governments are those that have the consent of the people. Therefore, any government that rules without the consent of the people can, in theory, be overthrown. Galileo was known as the father of the scientific method. He played a major role in the scientific revolution with his contributions to astronomy and new discoveries of science. Rene descartes had major contributions to philosophy through his writings. With him believing in natural philosophy he insists that gods creations should be free. He laid the foundation for rationalism, a believe in a rational explanation for things in life that caused a fall away and a questioning of churches. King Louis XIV, Ivan the Terrible, and Peter the Great, Catherine the great. Ivan was called "Ivan the great" because he claimed succession from the Rurik dynasty. He organized a strong army, giving the military a strong emphasis it would retain. By 1480 Moscow had been freed from any payment to the mongols and had gained a vast territory running from the borders of the polish Lithuanian kingdom to the Ural mountains. Peter was called "peter the great" because peter built many new features into this framework. In essence Peter extended his predecessors policies of building up tsarist control. He added a concept of imitating Western forms. Catherine the great brought many peasant uprisings, she extended the power of the central government in regional affairs. Ivan the terrible killed many of the Russian nobles, or boyars whom he suspected of conspiracy. The Old Believers were the protesters against church reforms introduced by Patriarch Nikon (1652-1666). In 1652, [|Nikon] (1605–81; Patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church from 1652 to 1658) introduced a number of ritual and textual revisions with the aim of achieving uniformity between Russian and Greek Orthodox practices. Nikon, having noticed discrepancies between Russian and Greek rites and texts, ordered an adjustment of the Russian rites to align with the Greek ones of his time. In doing so, Nikon acted without adequate consultation with the clergy and without gathering a council. [|[1]] After the implementation of these revisions, the Church [|anathematized] and suppressed—with the support of Muscovite state power—the prior liturgical rite itself, as well as those who were reluctant to pass to the revised rite. Those who maintained fidelity to the existing rite endured severe persecutions from the end of the 17th century until the beginning of the 20th century as // schismatics // (raskol'niki, [|Russian] : раскольники). They became known as "Old Ritualists" ( // staroobryadtsy // ), a name introduced during the reign of Empress [|Catherine the Great] [// [|citation needed] //]. They continued to call themselves simply Orthodox Christians.
 * Looney- **Who developed the scientific method?
 * Martinez- **What were the significant scientific advancements that occurred during this time period, and who made them?
 * Measom- **What is absolutism? Who were the important absolutist monarchs?absolutism originated when peope called King Louis XIV an absolute monarch, and the French govenment absolute monarchy because the king had so much power. the kings in france stopped convening the medieval parliament and passed laws as they saw fit. They basically did what they want, blowing up castles of dissdent nobles and appointed their own bureacracy and representatives.their power can be summed up by king Louis XIV's quote "I am the state". other important absolute monarch were
 * Monteith- ** [[image:http://giantsavings-a.akamaihd.net/items/it/img/arrow-10x10.png height="10"]] or constitutional monarchy? How does it differ from the absolutist version?
 * Nguyen- ** What is the Enlightenment? How does it impact Western thought? The Age of Enlightenment (or simply the Enlightenment or Age of Reason) was a cultural movement of intellectuals beginning in the late 17th- and 18th-century Europe emphasizing reason and individualism rather than tradition.[1] Its purpose was to reform society using reason, challenge ideas grounded in tradition and faith, and advance knowledge through the scientific method. It promoted scientific thought, skepticism, and intellectual interchange.[2] It opposed superstition and intolerance, with the Catholic Church as a favorite target. Some Enlightenment philosophes collaborated with Enlightened despots, who were absolute rulers who tried out some of the new governmental ideas in practice. The ideas of the Enlightenment have had a long-term major impact on the culture, politics, and governments of the Western world. The age of enlightenment brought about transformation in people's religious beliefs. In the previous years, questions of theological dogma and church organization had been the main focus of the scholar interest. The enlightenment writers shifted attention away from religious questions to the secular study of society and an individual's role in the society. The Enlightenment critics' insistence on reform in the church led to criticism of organized religion, both Catholicism and Protestantism. The church was criticized mainly because it exercised enormous power in society; for instance, the peasants had to pay taxes to church, and the Catholic church also accepted indulgences in return for forgiveness of sins. The most influential people considered religion as an essential foundation of good society and government. Before the age of enlightenment, nearly every European believed in God, but after people started using reason to make conclusions about various aspects in life, their emerged different categories of people, atheists and deists. Atheists do not believe in any kind of God, while deists believe in God but they do not give him any active control over earthly affairs. For the first time, people claimed the label, atheist and disputed the common view that atheism led inevitably to immorality. Voltaire was a deist, and he claimed that Christianity had been a prime source of fanaticism and brutality among humans. As a result of enlightenment, rulers started being more tolerant with other upcoming religions, which were not Catholic.
 * Rajpurohit- **Who were the principle Enlightenment thinkers? What philosophies did they expound?
 * Rivers- **How does the Enlightenment affect the development of the United States?
 * Schaefer- **How does the Enlightenment impact the monarchies of Europe?-it impacted them in multiple fields for example it provided discoveries to enhance the strength of their armies making them a more formidable force, it impacted their medicine because they were beginning to understand the human body and how it worked, it impacted their ability of trade and expedition due to the use of star maps, and it impacted the church in a negative fashion as these new discoveries lead to less dependence on the church therefore causing it to lose [[image:http://giantsavings-a.akamaihd.net/items/it/img/arrow-10x10.png height="10"]] and authority. It was also a time when the people started to become literate.
 * Thomas- **Who were the significant Russian monarchs of this time period? For what are they notable?- **Oleg was the prince of Kiev. Oleg is notable for his attack on Constantinople in 911, and he adopted Christianity form the Byzantine Empire in 988. Rurik established Novgorod in 862. He is notable for leading an army to the Baltic coast of Russia in 855.**
 * Ali- **Why were Ivan, Peter, and Catherine all given the moniker “Great”. Similarly, why was Ivan terrible?
 * Arellano- **What was the Time of Troubles?
 * The Time of Troubles was a period of Russian history comprising the years of interregnum between the death of the last Russian Tsar of the Rurik Dynasty, Feodor Ivanovich, in 1598, and the establishment of the Romanov Dynasty in 1613. In 1601–1603, Russia suffered a famine that killed one-third of the population, about two million. At the time, Russia was occupied by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the Dymytriads, and suffered from civil uprisings, usurpers and impostors.**
 * Ivan the Terrible(1533-1584) kills off most of the house of Rurik and most ancient boyar families. When he murders his only healthy adult son and heir during a fit of rage in 1582, two years before his own death, he can be succeeded as tsar by the sole remaining royal candidate: his retarded son Fedor I, who rules until 1598. The vacuum caused by the destruction of the old aristocracy cannot be filled quickly with any native Russian authority. Also, the peasantry has been left destitute by Ivan's murderous oprichnina (1565-72), constant pillaging and slaving trades from the unguarded south by the Crimean Tatars, and heavy taxes needed to pay for Ivan's disastrous Livonian war (1558-82) with Sweden and Poland, which he loses, along with Russia's outlet to the Baltic Sea. The stage was set for a complete social breakdown, The Time of Troubles.**
 * Baylee- **What is the role of the Orthodox Church in Russian history?
 * Melana- **What is the title of the head of the Orthodox Church in Russia?
 * Barner- **Who were the Cossacks? Where did they settle?: ** The Cossacks were a group of mostly East Slavic people who became known for being members of semi-military, semi-naval communities, most of which were either located in Ukraine and Southern Russia. Most settlements were established along major rivers, like the Ural, and were excellent fisherman and sea merchants. When it came time for war, they could transform from a peaceful society to a virtually unstoppable naval force. They first Cossacks originated in Khazar around the 14th or 15th century, when two connected groups emerged, the Zaporizhian Sich, and the Don Cossack Host. The Zaporizhian Sich were a vassal people living in feudal Poland-Lithuania. The Don Cossack Host formed an alliance with the Tsardom of Russia. Afterwards, the Treaty of Pereyaslav brought most of the Ukrainian Cossack state under Russian rule. Together, they went and conquered and colonized to secure the borders on the Volga, the whole of Siberia, and the Yaik and the Terek Rivers. In the 18th Century, various groups of Cossacks led wars to abolish slavery, imperialism, and odious bureacracy, in order to maintain independence. By the end of the 18th Century, the Cossacks in general were transformed into a special military estate. Other than the guns and ammunition provided to them by the government, they had to go out of their way to gather up all the other necessary resources needed to run a successful military. Because of their military tradition, Cossack forces played an important role in Russia's wars of the 18th–20th centuries such as the Great Northern War, the Seven Years' War, the Crimean War, Napoleonic Wars, Caucasus War, numerous Russo-Turkish Wars, and the First World War. **
 * Bassett- **Who were the Serfs? What role did they play in Russian history?
 * Bates- **What was the critical nature of the serfs to the Russian Economy? <span style="color: #008000; font-family: 'Lucida Sans Unicode','Lucida Grande',sans-serif;">The serfs of Russia were important because they were the tax payers and the working force. The serfs were what gave the Russian tsars their power, wealth, and military foot soldiers. The serfs were also the ones who rebelled against the leaders of Russian leaders. The Russian leaders greatly oppressed the serfs because they were afraid of those rebellions, because if the serfs rebelled then all of Russia suffered. Their was hardly any middle class people, so the serfs were the main work force and supplied the goods and labor for Russia.
 * Boboy- **What did the Law Code of 1649 accomplish? - The Law Code of 1649 also know as the Sobornoye Ulozheniye was a legal code established in 1649 by the Zemsky Sobor under Alexis of Russia as a replacement for the Sudebnik of 1497 introduced by Ivan III of Russia, which is based on the Third Statute of Lithuania. The code survived well into the 19th century (up to 1849), when its articles were revised under the direction of Mikhail Speransky.The code consolidated Russia's slaves and free peasants into a new serf class and pronounced class hereditary as unchangeable . The new code prohibited travel between towns without an internal passport. Russian nobility agreed to serve in the army, but were granted the exclusive privilege of owning serfs.Basically,this code fixed the hereditary status of serfs,so that people born to that station could not legally escape it; setting up a system close to slavery.(serfs could be bought and sold, gambled away, and punished by their masters as opposed to before when serfs couldn't be bought and sold and could escape serfdom and become free.)
 * Boyer- **What reforms did the Patriarch, Nikon introduce? How did these reforms impact the Orthodox Church?
 * Caliman- **Who were the “Old Believers”?
 * Elbushra- **Russian foreign policy is usually regarded as expansionist. Where did Russia acquire territory during this time period?

Russia acquired land from many places as you can see in the map. They gained the most land from 1533-1689 from Siberia. There are also a number of other countries in the map that russia gained from the time period of 1533-1894. He reorganized the bureaucracy and hired advisers that actually knew their stuff, instead of just using nobility for advisers. He also improved military weaponry and the navy. He systematized law codes and the tax system, and trained bureaucrats. He encouraged manufacturing, but didn't urbanize or bring back the middle class. He gave more power to upper class women and declared war on beards because they were reminiscent of the Mongols. Education in math and science, ballet, and Christmas trees were brought from the west. He was doing all this because when he went to western Europe, he saw the Enlightenment, and wanted in on all the enlightenment and prosperity.
 * Eubank- **Who were the principle foreign enemies of the Russian state?
 * Fackrell- **What are the two historical geo-political objectives of the Russian state? Why have the Russians always coveted these two objectives?
 * Gilbert- **The Russians see themselves as the heir to the Byzantine Empire. How has this world view impacted the development of the Russian state? The Russians believe their the heir to the Byzantines and in conclusion, they try to act like them in most ways, shapes or forms. They are never democratic after this time period and believe alot in the Byzantines.
 * Harper- **How did Peter attempt to westernize Russia? Why did he want to do that?
 * Heald- **How did the serfs fare under the reigns of the various Russian monarchs?
 * Hunt- **What were the long term impacts of the Mongol invasions on the development of the Russian state? **The rule of the Mongols kept Russia very isolated and shut off from the outside trade networks. This led to the Russians "missing out" on the renaissance and being left behind technologically, cuturally, and economically. Russia is not able to catch up to the other empires, so it suffers from inferiority in many ways.**
 * Jenkins- **How did the social stratification of Russia impact the state? (hint: were there serf rebellions? What was the relationship of the boyars to the monarchy?)
 * Johnson- **How did Russia relate to the Ottoman Empire; the West; Eastern Europe; the New World? Russia was behind on technology due to being controlled by the Mongols. The Russians wanted to emulate the Western European society but sometimes would shut itself of when the tsars rule is in danger. Copied the Europeans calture, military, science. Rulers often made trips to Europe. Russia always one step behind. Where Russia was open Ottomans were closed. Russians acquired their religion from Byzantium. Wished to expand into this land. Russians and Ottomans even in technological advances